
('lass S^ElhSff 



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THE 

California Fruits 

AND 

HOW TO GROW THEM 



A MANUAL OF METHODS WHICH HAVE 
YIELDED GREATEST SUCCESS, WITH THE 
LISTS OF VARIETIES BEST ADAPTED TO 
THE DIFFERENT DISTRICTS OF THE STATE 



;e 



TBY 

EDWARD J.^WICKSON, A. M. 

Professor of Horticulture in the College of Agriculture of the University of California: 
Horticulturist of the Agricultural Experiment Station; Author of '" California Vegetables 
in Garden and Field" and "One Thousand Questions in California Agriculture Answered"; 
Editor of the Pacific Rural Press; Member of the National Council of Horticulture. Etc. 



The branch here bends beneuth the weighty pear. 
And verdant olives flourish round the year; 
The balmy Spirit of the Western gale 
Eternal breathes on fruits untaught to fail: 
Each dropping pear a following pear supplies. 
On apples, apples: figs on figs arise. 
The same mild season gives the blooms to blow. 
The buds to harden, and the fruits to grow. 

—Pope's Hom. Odys. Bk. VI!. 



SEVENTH EDITION — Fully Revised 



SAN FRANCISCO. CAL. 
PACIFIC RURAL PRESS 
. Nineteen Hundred Fourteen 



/^ 






Copyright, IQ14. 

By E. J. Wickson and Pacific Rural Press, 

Published June, 1914. 



m \2 1914 



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o.r 



THE HICKS-JUDD COMPANY 
Printers and Bookbinders 
51-65 First Street, San Francisco 



CI,A3744JG 



PREFACE 



The Sixth Edition of this treatise has shared the good 
fortune of its immediate predecessors in meeting a public 
demand which covered the available supply much sooner 
than anticipated. Because of the desirability of keeping the 
work abreast of the progress of a constantly changing and 
developing industry, the publishers have assumed the bur- 
den of resetting the type for each edition, resisting the 
temptation of greater profit which would attend reprinting 
from plates with minimum revision. Therefore this edition 
is wholly set anew — the seventh opportunity for free revi- 
sion which the writer has enjoyed during the publication of 
the work, which has reached a total of nineteen thousand 
copies since the appearance of the first edition in 1889. 

Of the quality of the book, it does not become the writer 
to speak, but he may express his satisfaction at its popular- 
ity. Its circulation may be cited as a testimonial of its 
suitability for service in the building up of the fruit indus- 
tries, and the demand for it may be regarded as rather 
unique, when it is remembered that the book deals exclu- 
sively with the fruit growing of a single State which is only 
one, although it be the greatest, of the agricultural interests 
of that State. The demand for the book is an exponent of 
the continued activity in California fruit planting, and its 
sale abroad indicates the fact that the outside world is 
watching California's fruit development, and desires to 
know the methods by which such a great product as $100,- 
000,000 worth in a year is secured. 

The writer repeats the request which he has made in 
earlier editions that all readers whose observation and work 
teach them any better way than he has described in this 
book shall share with him the advantages of such greater 
wisdom, 

EDWARD J. WICKSON. 



University of California, 

Berkeley. May. 1914. 



CONTENTS 



PART one: general. 

Chapter. 

I The Climate of California and Its Modifications. 

II Why the California Climate Favors the Growth of Fruit. 

III The Fruit Soils of California. 

IV The Wild Fruits of California. 
V The California Mission Fruits. 

VI Introduction of New Fruit Varieties. 

PART two: cultural. 

VII Clearing the Land for Fruit. 

VIII The Nursery. 

IX Budding and Grafting. 

X Preparation for Planting. 

XI Planting of Trees. 

XII Pruning Trees and Thinning Fruit. 

XIII Cultivation. 

XIV Fertilizers for Trees and Vines. 

XV Irrigation of Fruit Trees and Vines. 

PART three: orchard fruits. 



XVI 


Commercial Fruit Varieties. 


XVII 


The Apple. 


XVIII 


The Apricot 


XIX 


The Cherry. 


XX 


The Peach. 


XXI 


The Nectarine. 


XXII 


The Pear. 


XXIII 


Plums and Prunes. 


XXIV 


The Quince. 



PART FOUR: THE GRAPE. 
Chapter. 

XXV The Grape Industrj^ 

XXVI Propagating and Planting Vines. 

XXVII Pruning and Care of the Vine. 

XXVIII Grape Varieties in California. 

PART five: semi-tropical fruits. 

XXIX The Date. 

XXX The Fig. 

XXXI The Olive. 

XXXII The Orange. 

XXXIII The Pomelo or Grape Fruit. 

XXXIV The Lemon. 

XXXV Minor Semi-Tropical Fruits. 

PART SIX : SMALL FRUITS. 
XXXVI Berries and Currants. 

PART SEVEN : NUTS. 
XXXVII Nut Grovring: Almond, Walnut, etc. 

PART EIGHT : FRUIT PRESERVATION. 
XXXVIII Fruit Canning, Crystalizing .and Preserving. 

PART NINE : FRUIT PROTECTION. 

XXXIX Injurious Insects. 

XL Diseases of Trees and Vines. 

XLI Suppression of Injurious Animals and Birds. 

XLII Protection from Wind and Frost. 



PART TEN : MISCELLANEOUS. 

XLIII Utilization of Fruit Wastes. 
Topical Index. 



California Fruits 



PART ONE : GENERAL 



CHAPTER I 



THE CLIMATE OF CALIFORNIA AND ITS LOCAL 
MODIFICATIONS 

In climatic conditions affecting horticulture we have in Cali- 
fornia almost an epitome of all other parts of the United States, 
with added climatic characters which no other part possesses. We 
have high mountain valleys with wintry temperature-conditions, where 
only hardy northern fruits can be grown ; we have hot valleys where 
the date palm confidently lifts its head to the fiery sunshine, while its 
feet are deeply planted in moist substrata beneath the sandy surface ; 
but we can not claim tropical conditions, because our dry air denies 
us many strictly tropical growths, although we have frostless sites 
for them. Intermediate between the cold and snow of the moun- 
tains and the heat and sand of the desert, we have every describable 
modification and gradation, and, naturally, it is between these extremes 
that our richest inheritance of horticultural adaptation lies. 

When the breadth and scope of our horticultural adaptations 
are realized, it becomes apparent that an enumeration of the fruits 
we can grow successfully would be, in fact, a catalogue of the 
known fruits of the world, except those which are strictly tropical. 
Wherever there is a northern or southern departure from the 
equator sufficient to bring energy to mankind, or where the same 
is accomplished by elevation upon tropical mountainside or plateau, 
there also are fruits which find a welcoming home in California, 
and are improved by the intelligent cultivation and selection which 
here prevail. On the. other hand, it has been abundantly demon- 
strated, during recent years, by official awards at great exhibitions 



10 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

and by the sharp criteria of the markets as well, that the fruits of 
wintry regions are quite as much benefited by transfer to proper 
locations in California as are the people who come to grow them. 
From north and south alike, then, California makes grand acquisi- 
tions and includes within her area the adaptations of the whole 
country, with some which no other State possesses. 

But while this horticulutral scope is claimed for the State as a 
whole, it is necessary to add that local adaptations within the State 
must be very narrowly drawn. Our greatest failures have followed 
ill choice of location for the purpose intended. Whenever certain 
California fruits have been ill spoken of, they have been produced 
in the wrong places, or by ill-advised methods. It is possible, 
then, to produce both poor and perfect fruit of a given kind. It 
may be said this can be done anywhere by the extremes of culture 
and neglect, but to this proposition it must be added that in Cali- 
fornia equally excellent methods and care may produce perfection 
in one place and the opposite in another. One who seeks to know 
California well must undertake to master both its horticultural 
greatness and littleness ; and so closely are these associated, and 
so narrow the belts of special adaptations, that there are many 
counties which have a range of products nearly as great as the 
State itself. 

It is hard for the stranger to realize this. It is difficult for 
him to believe that the terms "northern" and "southern" have 
almost no horticultural significance in California ; that northern fruits 
reach perfection, under proper conditions, at the south, and vice versa; 
that some regions of greatest rainfall have to irrigate most frequently ; 
that some of greatest heat have sharpest valley frosts; that some 
fruits can be successfullly grown through a north and south distance 
of 300 miles, but can not be successfully carried a few hundred feet 
of either less or greater elevation ; that on the same parallel of latitude 
within a hundred miles of distance, from coast to mountainside, one 
can continuously gather marketable Bartlett pears for three months — 
not to mention the second crop, from belated blossoms, which is often 
of account on the same trees in the same season. 

Through the multitude of local observations, which seem per- 
plexing and almost contradictory, it is possible to clearly discern 
certain general conditions, of both nature and culture, which may 
be briefly advanced as characteristically and distinctively Cali- 
fornian. 

The climate of the Pacific Coast is described by the meteorologist 
as "insular or moderate," as contrasted with the "continental or 
excessive" climate of the regions east of the Sierra Nevada. The 
west coast of Europe is also insular in its climate. The northern 
limit of an annual mean temperature of 50 degrees Fahr. is 50 
degrees and 47 degrees of north latitude on western coasts of Europe 
and America respectively. But though there is this similarity in 
mean annual temperature, there is a decided advantage pertaining to 
our climate over that of west Europe in that our range of temperature 
is less ; that is, extremes of heat and cold are nearer together, and 



California's fortunate situation 11 

changes are therefore much less excessive. This characteristic of 
our local climates is due in the main to two great agencies, one active, 
bringing heat, the other passive, shielding us from arctic influences. 

First: Our proximity to the Pacific Ocean. Professor Alexander 
G. McAdie. for twenty years in charge of the San Francisco office of 
the United States Weather Bureau, and now Professor of Meteorology 
at Harvard University, says of the mildness of the California 
climate : "The Pacific Ocean is a great natural conservator of heat, 
the mean annual temperature of which near the California Coast 
ranges from 50 degrees to 60 degrees F. The strength of the westerly 
winds which prevail on the California Coast for more than half the 
days of the year is due to the fact that the whole drift of the atmos- 
phere is prevailingly from the west to east. The climate of west 
coasts is consequently less severe than the climate of east coasts."* 

Second : Another agency contributing to the mild climate of 
the Pacific Coast consists in the the mountain barriers upon our 
northern and eastern boundaries. It was Guyot who first called 
attention to the fact that the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Mountains 
reach the coast of Alaska and bend like a great arm around its 
western and southern shore, thus shutting oflF or deflecting the polar 
winds that otherwise would flow down over the Pacific Coast States, 
while California has her own additional protection from the north in 
the mountain arch which has its keystone in Mount Shasta. 



CHIEF TOPOGRAPHICAL AND CLIMATIC DIVISIONS 

OF CALIFORNIA 

California is usually divided into three main areas and climates, 
each distinct in typical conditions and yet separated by regions, more 
or less wide, in which these conditions merge and influence each other. 
Dr. Robertson says :t 

Isothermal lines which normally run east and west are, as they near the 
Pacific, deflected north and south, and define three distinct climatic belts. These 
may be named coast, valley and mountain ; and while they resemble each other in 
having only two seasons, they are dissimilar in other respects. These differences 
depend upon the topography of the country, and are of degree rather than of 
kind ; altitude, distance from the ocean, and situation with reference to mountain 
chains, giving to each region its characteristic climate. 

How similar are the conditions which prevail in these belts may be 
learned from the data shown in the following table, which includes 
points separated by nearly the whole length of the State, the diflPerence 
in latitude of the extreme north and south points being seven or eight 
degrees. Thus, through a north or south distance great as that which 
separates the States of Georgia and New York, similar climatic 
conditions prevail in California. In the following table the averages 
are deduced from observations by the United States Weather Bureau 
observers for a long series of years : 

•"The Rainfall of California," University of California Publications in Geography, 1914. 
fReport of State Agricultural Society, 1886, page 322. 



12 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Seasonable and extreme temperatures and average rainfall in various Cali- 
fornia regions from the records of the United States Weather Bureau to the 
close of 1913. 







4-» 
1) 


u 


60 




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V 


V 


If 






. 


I? 


0.3 


S 3 


"a 3 


t3 ? 


3 


3 


>•" 


STATIONS. 


COUNTY. 


o 


(I. « 


V ? 


n. f 


«. « 


nJ 


rt 


«— * 








bo V 


Mu 




bo u 


bo (u 


u> V 


■a V 


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c3 O. 


rt Q, 


n o. 


« D. 


rt O, 


1) a 


V o. 


3^ 






> 


!r. E 


^,F. 


V B 


^S 


0-, E 


tnE 


kB 


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> V 


> « 


> V 




o <u 


C a 






W 


<" 


<■*" 


<*' 


<" 


<^ 


a^ 


1-1 ■" 


< "" 


COAST— 






















Eureka 


, .Humboldt 


,. 64 


47 


50 


56 


54 


52 


85 


20 


462 


San Francisco . 


. San Francisco . 


.. 155 


51 


55 


59 


59 


56 


101 


29 


22.8 


San Jose 


. Santa Clara .... 


.. 95 


50 


57 


67 


60 


58 


108 


18 


15.4 


King City 


. Monterey 


. . 333 


49 


57 


66 


60 


58 


116 


14 


11.3 


Santa Barbara . 


. Santa Barbara . 


.. 130 


55 


58 


65 


63 


60 


108 


27 


17.3 


Los Angeles . . 


. Los Angeles . . . 


.. 293 


55 


60 


70 


65 


62 


109 


28 


15.9 


San Diego . . . . 


. San Diego 


. 933 


55 


59 


68 


63 


61 


110 


25 


9.5 


VALLEY— 






















Redding 


.Shasta 


.. 552 


47 


60 


80 


64 


63 


117 


18 


38.7 


Sacramento . . . 


. Sacramento .... 


.. 71 


47 


59 


72 


62 


60 


110 


19 


19.4 


Merced 


.Merced 


.. 173 


49 


61 


79 


65 


63 


120 


16 


10.6 


Fresno 


. Fresno 


.. 293 


47 


60 


79 


64 


63 


115 


20 


10.0 


Visalia 


. Tulare 


.. 334 


46 


59 


78 


62 


61 


113 


17 


10.3 



FOOTHILL AND MESA— 

Auburn ^lacer 1360 47 57 75 64 61 110 12 35.1 

Redlands San Bernardino. . .1352 52 61 77 65 64 113 18 14.9 



LOCATIONS FOR THE GROWTH OF DIFFERENT 

FRUITS 

It is intended to describe as definitely as possible the locations 
suitable for the growth of different fruits in the special chapters 
g"iven to those fruits, but there are a few general conditions which 
should be outlined. 

In discussing the choice of location for an orchard it is not 
intended to speak geographically. As has already been intimated, 
latitude, which is a prime factor in geography, is of exceedingly 
small account as an indication of horticultural adaptations in California. 
The fact becomes strikingly apparent when it is known that the apple 
and the orange, fruit kings whose kingdoms lie at opposite borders 
of the temperate zone, so far distant that one may be called semi- 
frigid and the other semi-tropical, have in California utter disregard 
for the parallels of latitude, which set metes and bounds upon them 
in other hands, and flourishes side by side, in suitable localities, from 
San Diego to Shasta. Impressive as this truth may be, it is not so 
startling as another fact, viz., that fruits, in suitable interior situations, 
ripen earlier at the north than in coast valleys at the south. 

"That almost any extreme of weather," says Professor McAdie 
in his publication just cited," can be found within the limits of 
California is readily comprehensible when it is considered that the 
state is 800 miles in length, contains a hundred million acres, and 



COAST CLIMATKS OF CALII-ORXIA 13 

varies from deserts as much as 280 feet below the sea to Shasta, 14,380 
feet, or the High Sierra, where 66 peaks exceed 10,000 feet in height, 
while 40 exceed 13.000 feet, and Mount Whitney rises to 14,502 feet." 

It is apparent then, in view of such diversity, that the selection of 
locations for orchards must be made with a knowledge of special condi- 
tions governing the distribution of equal temperatures and other natural 
agencies contributing to the development of fruit. This distribution, as 
has been intimated, is not by parallels of latitude, great circles which 
appear as straight lines on a map. but by curves, which proceed in 
various directions, governed chiefly by topography. These are curves 
of temperature, of rainfall, of elevation, of soil formation and deposit. 
Geography must be interpreted by topography and climatography. 

Let these ruling conditions be reviewed, then, briefly: First, as 
to general areas; second, with reference to special situations and 
locations. 

COAST CLIMATE 

The chief characteristics of the coast are equable temperature, 
increasing southward ; summers cool and winters warm, as compared 
with the interior; abundant rainfall, decreasing considerably south- 
ward ; a somewhat humid atmosphere, as compared with the interior ; 
frequent fogs or overcast skies ; prevailing westerly winds. 

The extension of coast influence toward the interior is gov- 
erned by local topography. Coast valleys open to ocean winds are 
cooler and moister and demand hardier fruits than valleys sheltered 
by intervening ranges. Gaps and passes in the ranges are subject to 
winds of considerable force and low temperature, and are not generally 
favorable for fruit ; on the other hand, situations sheltered on the north 
and west favor growth of fruits even though quite near the coast. 
Sometimes a distance of a few miles, sometimes a wind-break or 
natural forest, or of planted trees, so modifies coast influences that 
fruits do well. Elevation on the sides of coast valleys secures similar 
results. For example, the floor of the Pajaro Valley is well suited 
for apples, late pears, cherries, plums, prunes, and berries (except 
gooseberries), while on adjacent hillsides peaches do well. 

In southern California, coast winds are warmer than in the upper 
half of the State, but coast influences intrude further, as a rule, 
because the hills near the coast in Southern California are low; the 
high ranges, answering to the Coast Range of the upper part of 
the State, trending far into the interior. On the coast side of these 
ranges fruits ripen later than in sheltered interior points in the upper 
j)art of the State, but eastward of the mountains, where soil and 
moisture favor, or irrigation is practised, extra early locations have 
been found and are now being rapidly developed — in the Imperial 
and adjacent valleys, for instance. 

Some of the horticultural eflPccts of the conditions prevailing on 
the coast may be described as follows : 

Late Ripening of Fruits. — The late ripening of fruits west of 
the mountains in sout^icrn California has just been mentioned. In- 
trusion of coast influences has the same effect in more marked degree 



14 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

at the north because the ocean winds are colder. Directly on the 
coast, at Pescadero, San Mateo County, for example, fruits ripen 
about a month later than in Santa Clara Valley, which is just across 
the Coast Range. Napa Valley, though about forty miles inland and 
sheltered by ranges of hills, still is sufficiently affected by the coast 
influences to mature fruits considerably later than Vaca Valley, ten 
or fifteen miles further east, beyond a higher range, which completely 
bars out these influences. Similar local effects are found in southern 
California. For instance, in V^entura County in a canyon sixteen miles 
from the ocean, and at an elevation of sixteen hundred feet, fruits 
ripen three weeks earlier than on the coast or in the valleys opening 
thereon. 

Failure of Certain Fruits. — Though killing frosts are few directly 
on the coast, the deficiency in summer heat and sunshine renders 
some fruits unsatisfactory. This is especially the case in the upper 
coast region. Grapes and figs ripen imperfectly, while but a short 
distance back from the coast, in situations, sheltered by ridges parallel 
to the coast, they do well. Elevation sometimes produces correspond- 
ing effects. 

Pests and Diseases. — Certain blights are more prevalent under 
coast conditions. The scab blight of the apple, the curl-leaf of the 
peach, and some other blights, are prevalent on the coast and in 
coast valleys, on the river bottoms in the interior, and on the moun- 
tains, and less serious, or wholly absent, in the hot interior valleys. 
Some insects prefer the coast but thrive also in the interior, as hot 
dry wind is excluded by dense growth of the tree and the included 
air becomes moister above irrigated soil. A notable instance is the 
black scale, which, with the black smut which attends it, has long been 
a grievous pest of growers of olives and citrus fruits, and has re- 
cently become prevalent on deciduous fruit trees in some regions. 
On the other hand, in the face of ocean winds the codlin moth seems 
to have less chance to fill pears and apples with her destructive off- 
spring, than she enjoys in interior valleys and mountain regions. 
Directly under coast influences, moss and lichens gather quickly and 
should be removed. Spraymg with alkaline washes not only kills 
insects but cleans the bark from parasitic vegetable growth. Although 
fruit trees on the coast are not so subject to sunburn as in the interior, 
there is especial value in low heading to withstand winds ; there 
should also be plenty of room given the trees, that sunshine may have 
free access to warm the ground all around the tree, which may be 
undesirable in the interior. 

VALLEY CLIMATE 

The characteristics of the interior valley climate are higher 
summer and lower winter temperatures than on the coast, the range 
of temperature being nearly the same both north and south ; rainfall 
abundant in the north and decreasing rapidly southward, so that as 
a rule the interior valleys in the south half of the State require irriga- 
tion; very dry air and almost constant sunshine, freedom from fogs 



CALIFORNIA VALLEY CLIMATES 15 

and from dew in suninKriimc; winds occasionally strong, hot, and 
desiccatint; in summer and cold m winter. 

Local Modifications. — The term "valley climate" is broad, and 
includes everything, away from the coast to a certain elevation on 
the slope of the mountains. Certain small valleys protected from cold 
northerly winds and from fog-bearing westerly winds and open to 
the spring sunshine, have a forcing climate which produces the earliest 
maturing fruit of the season ; earlier not only than the coast and the 
mountain, as has been stated, but also somewhat earlier than adjacent 
locations in the broad, open valley. Slight elevation, even on the 
sides of small valleys, frequently secures freedom from winter frosts 
and ministers to early ripening. Elevation above sea-level on the 
rims of great valleys also secures similar results and gives rise to 
thermal belts in which semi-tropical fruits are successfully growing 
even as far north as Shasta County. On the floors of great valleys 
moderating influences are secured on the lee side of wide rivers and 
by planting on the river bank or on slightly elevated swells rather 
than on the level, open plain. The river bottom lands of the great 
valleys, though subject to severe frosts, are freer from the effects 
of desiccating winds than the open plains ; they are, however, more 
favorable to the spread of certain blights than the plains. 

Some of the horticultural effects of valley conditions are as 
follows : Early ripening and perfection of summer and autumn 
fruits, owing to continual sunshine and dry air; forced maturity of 
certain fruits, as apples for instance, which destroys character and 
keeping quality; injury from sunburn and hot winds in summer, 
which seriously affect both fruit and foliage of some varieties ; 
occasional injury to tender fruits (semi-tropicals) and to young trees 
of hardy fruits, which have been kept growing late in the season, 
from low temperature, which sometimes is reached suddenly on the 
floor of the valleys ; freedom from some blights and insects which 
are prevalent on the coast, but not from others. Many of these minor 
troubles are, however, counterbalanced by the earliness, size, beauty, 
and quality of certain fruits, and by the most rapid and successful 
open-air drying of fruits, owing to high autumn temperature, the 
freedom from summer fog, dew and generally from rain during the 
drying season. 

FOOTHILL CLIMATE 

Foothill climate is usually considered as a modification of valley 
climate. It has been shown that up to about two thousand five 
hundred feet, on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, the seasonal 
temperatures are quite like those of the valley, but the rainfall in- 
creases about one inch for each hundred feet of elevation. There 
are, however, in the foothillls, places where early spring heat and 
freedom from frost give very early ripening fruits, and other places 
at the same elevation where winter temperature drops below the 
valley minimum, and where late frosts also prevail. This is gov- 
erned by local topography. In many of the small valleys among the 
foothills, both of the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Ranges, frosts 



16 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

are more severe than on the hills adjacent or in the broader valleys 
to which they are tributary. These small ''protected valleys" are 
apparently warm and cozy for early blooming deciduous and citrus 
fruits, but they are really very dangerous. They frequently have 
such narrow and obstructed openings that cold air is dammed up 
over their lower lands and frosts are more severe and later than in 
valleys which have ample and free outlets and seem less protected. 

Of course the disposition of cold air to settle in low places and 
to flow down canyons and creek-beds while the warm air rises and 
bathes the adjacent hillsides, has much to do with frost in the hollow 
and the freedom from it on the hills. The constant motion of the air 
on the slopes is also a preventive of frost, providing the general 
temperature is not too low. It is not uncommon to find in deeper 
valleys, protected against the western wind, flakes of snow and a 
wintry chill, with dormant vegetation, while one thousand feet higher 
up the foliage is fast developing. 

MOUNTAIN CLIMATE 

Above an elevation of two thousand live hundred to three 
thousand feet, conditions gradually intrude which 'resemble those 
of wintry climates. The tender fruits, the apricots, peach, etc., 
become liable to winter injury and give irregular returns, or as 
greater elevation is attained, become wholly untrustworthy. Early 
blooming of these fruits during warm spells which are followed by 
severe frosts, renders the trees unfruitful. At four thousand to four 
thousand five hundred feet the hardy apple and pear flourish, ripen- 
ing late, and winter varieties possessing excellent keeping qualities. 
Here, however, winter killing of trees begins and locations even for 
hardy fruits have to b^ choosen with circumspection. 

There are elevated tracts of large extent among the Sierras 
where the common wild plum, choke-cherry, gooseberry, and Cali- 
fornia chestnut are produced abundantly. April frosts have killed 
the fruit of those same plums, transplanted to lower ground, while 
those left in their natural situation were quite unharmed. It has 
been observed that these plum trees with other fruits and nuts in 
their original positions, invariably occupy the broad tops of the 
great ridges instead of the sides and bottoms of ravines or narrow, 
pent-up valleys. Follow nature in the choice of orchard sites (with 
due regard to a supply of moisture in the soil, either natural or 
artificial) and little hazard attends the culture of the hardier fruits 
of our latitude among the highlands of the State than is incident 
to other seemingly more favored localities. The beauty and quality 
of these mountain fruits are proverbial. 

A RULE OF GENERAL APPLICATION 

What has been thus suggested of the great variation of tem- 
perature conditions within narrow limits should lead to the conclusion 
that not only must the kind of fruit to plant be determined by local 



REST OF TREES NOT Dl^E TO FROSTS 17 

observation and experience, but often varieties of these fruits must 
be chosen with reference to adaptation to local environment. For 
this reason it is impossible to compile tables of varieties suited for 
wide areas — and yet it is true that some varieties have shown them- 
selves hardy and satisfactory under all conditions. These facts will 
be shown by the discussion which will be given to each of the 
different fruits. 

REST AND ACTIVITY OF FRUIT TREES 

Indication has already been made of regions adapted to the 
growth of early and of late fruits. There is, of course, difference 
in time of rest and of returning activity in blooming. On the 
mountains under wintry conditions the trees leaf out and bloom 
late, following more or less the habit of Eastern trees. In the 
foothills, the valleys, and the coast, there is less difference in time 
of rest and of leaf and bloom. Even in regions where there may 
be a month's difference in ripening of fruit, as, for example, in the 
Vacaville district, fifty miles inland, and in Berkeley, two miles from 
the bay shore, trees bloom almost at the same date. The difference 
in ripening is due to the higher temperature and fuller sunshine of 
the interior situation, which have a forcing effect, while the low- 
temperature and dull skies of the summer on the coast retard 
maturity. 

The rest of the tree, in all save the mountain district, is not 
dependent upon the touch of frost. It comes rather from thirst than 
from cold. The immense weight of fruit, the vigorous growth of 
wood, and the exhaustion of moisture from the soil by the draught 
of the roots to compass this growth, are the chief causes which 
bring the sere and yellow leaf in California. It is not frost, for the 
petunias may be blooming and the tomato vines still green in the 
fields. But the time has come for a rest. The trees sleep ; but merely 
as a nap at midday; the early rains wake them soon. The roots 
are active first, then the buds swell, and the blossoms burst forth — 
sometimes as early as January — the almond first heralding the advent 
of California's springtime. 

Sometimes this season of rest is too short for the good of the 
tree or vine. The early rains, when followed by a spring-like tem- 
perature, as sometimes happens, induce activity in the top as well 
as the root, and the tree is not in condition to withstand cold 
weather, which may follow. It is probable that such stimulated 
activity, suddenly checked, is responsible for more ills to tree and 
vine than are usually attributed to it. Both to insure hardiness and 
fruitfulness it is imjiortant that a tree shall have summer moisture 
enough to finish its late summer and early autumn growth-processes. 
Reference to this important matter is made in the chapter on 
irrigation. 



CHAPTER II 

WHY THE CALIFORNIA CLIMATE FAVORS THE 
GROWTH OF FRUIT 

It is pointed out by the earliest students of meteorology, as 
related to horticulture, that perfect development of fruits depends 
upon certain atmospheric conditions, which are included in the term 
climate : First, temperature ; second, light ; third, humidity or 
atmospheric moisture, — considered wholly apart from soil moisture. 
It was also shown that temperature and humidity should be equable, 
or as free as possible from excessive extremes or rapid changes. 

Obviously, the chief characteristics of the California climate are : 
First, freedom from extremes of low temperature ; second, an abun- 
dance of sunshine ; and third, and atmosphere with a low percentage 
of humidity. It will be interesting to introduce enough statistics 
to demonstrate these claims, and to cite reasons why these con- 
ditions are of special value to the fruit grower. 



THE OFFICE OF HEAT IN FRUIT PRODUCTION 

Temperature conditions may preclude the success of a fruit tree 
either by destroying it outright, by dwarfing it, or by preventing 
it from setting or ripening its fruit. Extremes of temperature ac- 
complish the death of plants, and insufficient or excessive mean 
temperatures may prevent fruition without killing the plant. The 
first quality of the California climate to arrest the attention of fruit 
growers in the states east of the Rocky Mountains is the freedom 
from the effects of the extremely low winter temperatures, to which 
is due the deplorable failure, in the eastern and western states, of 
many of the fruit varieties from the west of Europe, and to escape 
which such zealous efforts now being so successfully put forth to 
secure hardy varieties of native and foreign origin. 

How slight is the injury from low temperatures in all parts of 
the State where fruit is largely grown may be seen from the follow- 
ing compilation of extreme low temperatures at different points 
approximately at the same latitude on the coast, in the interior valleys, 
and on the foot-hills. 

Lowest Temperatures at Several California Points. 



Coast and Coast Deg. above 
Valleys — zero. 

Eureka 20 

Ukiah 12 

Cloverdale 17 

Napa 18 

San Francisco 28 

San Jose 18 

Gilroy 20 

San Miguel 11 

Los Angeles 28 

San Diego 25 



Deg. above 
Interior Valleys — zero. 

Redding 18 

Red Bluff 18 

Oroville 15 

Marysville 19 

Sacramento 19 

Merced 16 

Fresno 17 

Tulare City 18 

Colton 19 

Imperial 20 



Foothills- 



Deg. above 
zero. 



Nevada City 4 

Colfax 8 

Auburn 12 

Jackson 10 

Porterviile is 

Redlands 18 



18 



IMPORTANCE OF ADEQUATE HEAT 19 

These records will show any one familiar with winter killing of 
the leading orchard fruits that such disasters are not to be feared 
in the chief fruit regions of California. Local temperature is largely 
controlled by local conditions, as has been already pointed out, and 
in the districts named in the table there are special locations where 
the lowest temperature probably differed a few degrees from the 
figures given. 

NECESSITY OF ADEQUATE SUMMER HEAT 

Passing beyond the freedom from winter killing, it may be re- 
marked that the iniUiences of certain degrees of heat upon the growth 
of the plant and the perfection of its fruit, has been the subject of 
much close observation. Boussingault conducted careful experiments, 
and showed that a temperature above a certain minimum of heat is 
found necessary for germination, another for chemical modification, 
and a third for flowering, a fourth for the ripening of seeds, a fifth 
for the elaboration of the saccharine juices, and a sixth for the 
development of aroma or bouquet. 

Originally the mean annual temperature was alone observed, and 
the polar limits of plants, it was presumed, could be thereby deter- 
mined. More recently it was taught that the mean temperature of 
seasons is of more importance than that of the year, and it is believed 
that to the relative distribution of heat over the seasons rather than 
to the absolute amount received during the year, w^e are to attribute 
the fitness or unfitness of a region for the growth of certain kinds 
of vegetation. 

It is held in Europe that the mean heat of the cycle of vegetation 
of the vine must be at least 59 degrees Fahr., and that of the summer 
from 65 degrees to 66 degrees Fahr. It is stated to be impossible, 
for instance, to cultivate the vine upon the temperate tablelands of 
South America, where they enjoy a mean temperature of 62.6 de- 
grees to 66.2 degrees Fahr., because these climates are characterized 
by a constancy of temperature, never rising to the higher heats nec- 
essary to the process of sugar forming, and the vine grows and 
flourishes, but the grapes never become thoroughly ripe. Boussin- 
gault shows that, in addition to a summer and autumn sufficiently 
hot, it is indispensable that at a given period — that which follows the 
appearance of seeds — there should be a month the mean temperature 
of which does not fall below 66.2 degrees Fahr. As will appear 
presently, this temperature test should not be taken alone, but it will 
serve as a standard to show one feature of the horticultural adapta- 
tion of the California climate. Boussingault claims the need of 66.2 
degrees Fahr. for a single month. To be sure to include this, the 
accompanying table gives the average summer temperature at the 
leading fruit-growing centers named. 



20 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

Average Summer Temperature at Various California Points 

Coast and Coast Eleva- Deg. 

Valleys — Deg. F. Interior Valleys — Deg. F. Foothills — tion. F. 

Upper Lake 86 Redding 80 Auburn 1,363 75 

Napa 65 Oroville 79 Colfax 2,241 76 

Livermore 69 Marysville 78 Georgetown 2,500 85 

San Jose 67 Sacramento 12 Caliente 1,290 82 

Hollister 66 Merced 79 Fall Brook 700 68 

Santa Barbara ... 65 Fresno 79 Redlands 1,352 11 

Los Angeles .... 70 Tulare 78 

San Diego 68 Riverside 12) 

These points are selected because the European varieties of the 
grape reach perfection in their vicinity. The excess of heat above 
that required, as is found at all the interior points mentioned in the table, 
results in a very high sugar percentage in the grapes, and contributes 
to the ripening of a second and tliird crop, as will be noted presently. 
The superior length of the growing season in California, of course, 
is an important agency toward the same end. , 

DIRECT SUNLIGHT ALSO A REQUISITE 

Count de Gasparin was first to point out that not alone sufficient 
heat, but abundance of continuous sunshine is a requisite of perfec- 
tion in fruit growth and ripening, and on his authority may be based 
a claim of exceptional value to the fruit grower in the months of 
cloudless skies which are characteristic of the California summer. 

"The solar rays," says Gasparin, "do not only produce heat, but 
brings us Hght, and the effects of the heat and light rays differ in a 
very pronounced manner. Without light there is no fructification ; 
it is not necessary that the want of light should be complete that 
there should be a failure of fruits. In fact, diffused light alone does 
not suffice for the greater number of plant? ; cultivated plants will 
not ripen their seed without the direct rays of sun, and the longer 
they are deprived of it the smaller the quantity which they will 
mature."* 

Again referring to the grape, for in connection with the growth 
of this fruit the most careful researches have been made, Humboldt 
wrote: "If to give a potable wine the vine shuns the islands and 
nearly all seacoasts, even those of the West, the cause is not only 
in the moderate heat of summer upon the seashore, but it exists 
more in the difference which there is between direct and diffused 
light ; between a clear sky, and one veiled with clouds. "f 



*Cours d' Agriculture, t. II, p. 96. 
fCosmos, t. I, p. 349. 















Avg. for 


May. 


June 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


9 mo. 


3.6 


1.9 


1.0 


0.7 


1.3 


2.4 


3.4 


2.5 


2.7 


1.5 


0.5 


0.4 


1.1 


2.0 


2.8 


2.0 


4.2 


3.8 


4.3 


4.3 


3.5 


3.3 


3.8 


4.0 


2.7 


1.5 


0.7 


0.9 


1.4 


2.2 


2.8 


2.0 


5.3 


4.8 


4.3 


3.9 


3.7 


3.8 


3.3 


4.2 


5.2 


4.9 


4.6 


4.6 


4.9 


6.0 


7.6 


5.5 


5.2 


4.9 


5.0 


4.9 


4.7 


4.9 


5.2 


5.0 


5.1 


5.0 


5.0 


4.9 


4,8 


4.7 


5.2 


5.0 


5.1 


4.9 


4.8 


4.9 


4.7 


4.6 


4.9 


4.9 


4.9 


4.6 


4.3 


4.3 


4.9 


5.7 


7.3 


5,3 


4.8 


4.6 


3.8 


4.0 


4.4 


5.6 


7.5 


5.1 


4.1 


5.1 


4.8 


4.9 


5.0 


4.2 


4.5 


4.5 


4.3 


4.7 


4.9 


4.7 


4.3 


3.5 


4.5 


4.5 



CLEAR SUNLIGHT A REQUISITE 21 

Normal Cloudiness at California and Eastern Points 

Mar. April. 

California — 

Red Bluff 4.4 4.2 

Sacramento 3.9 3.5 

San Francisco 4.8 4.3 

Fresno 4.3 2.9 

San Diego 4.8 4.4 

Eastern — 

Rochester, N. Y 6.6 5.4 

New York, N. Y. ..5.5 5.3 

Philadelphia. Pa. ...5.6 5.4 

Baltimore, Md 5.4 5.1 

Cleveland, Ohio ....6.4 5.3 

Grand Haven, Mich. 6.2 5.4 

Jacksonville, Fla. ...4.2 4.1 

New Orleans, La. . . .4.8 4.8 

It is noticeable that at the CaHfornia coast points the average 
cloudiness is almost twice that of the interior valleys, while at the 
East the interior fruit res^ions of western New York, Ohio, and 
Michigan, have a greater average cloudiness than the Hudson River, 
New Jersey, and Delaware regions near the Atlantic seaboard. The 
average cloudiness in the Eastern fruit regions is rather more than 
twice as great as in the regions of California where most fruit is 
grown. 

This excess of advantage, as it may be termed, in connection 
with the high and protracted heat already mentioned, takes practical 
form in the successful rii)ening of a second and sometimes a third 
crop of these grapes in a season, from later bloom on younger cane 
growth. This behavior is of more value as a demonstration of clim- 
atic conditions than otherwise, for it is generally better to produce 
the main crop alone than to undertake later ones. 

Another indication of excess of advantage in the interior valley 
is found in the development of high sugar contents, which is of 
direct value in raisin production. The same tendency, though per- 
haps of less commercial value, is seen in the fact that some grapes 
which yield a good claret wine nearer the coast develop too much 
alcohol when grown in the interior. 

The advantage of California over Eastern and Southern fruit 
regions in the abundance of clear sunshine is shown in the table 
on the preceding page. Cloudiness is rated from to 10, three 
observations daily, and the figures in the table are the averages from 
these daily observations for a series of years, compiled from the 
records of the U. S. Weather Bureau. 

RELATION OF ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY TO THE 
GROWTH OF TREES 

Here is another imjxjrtant condition of the climate of California 
which is intimately" related to those which have been considered, 
and which is to be credited with no small influence in the perfection 



22 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

of our fruits, and that is the low percentage of humidity which our 
atmosphere contains. In Cahfornia the percentage of humidity is 
high in the winter and low in the summer ; in the East the condi- 
tion is just reversed. For this reason summer heat is far more 
oppressive in the East than in California, and for the same reason 
certain serious fungoid diseases which prevail at the East, though 
found here in less injurious degree directly on the coast, may be 
wholly unknown in the interior where the air is drier. The dry air 
also favors the access and action of light and heat, for Tyndall says 
that a sheet of vapor acts as a screen to the earth, being in a great 
measure impervious to heat. 

It is not necessary, then, that there should be clouds to lessen the 
chemical effects of sun heat in fruit ripening. Not only do clouds 
intercept sunshine, but water vapor in the air — when to the eve the 
sun is bright as ever — can absorb a large quantity of the effective 
sun rays, and so retard fruit ripening. Hence an apparently sunny 
country which has much invisible water vapor in the air, may prove 
defective in fruit-ripening qualities. 

It is true that air free from humidity allows rapid escape of heat 
by radiation as well as free access of it, and in dry air frost is more 
severe, but at the time of the greatest fruit growth, from June to 
October, radiation down to a frost point is prevented by other natural 
agencies. In the early spring and late autumn the humidity per- 
centage rises again and checks radiation just at the time of the year 
when it is most desirable to have it checked. 

The accompanying table, compiled from the records of the United 
States Weather Bureau, shows the prevailing relative humidity in the 
East and South and in California. 

Normal Relative Humidity at Eastern and California Points 

Avg. for 
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. 8. mo. 

Eastern Stations — 

Jacksonville, Fla 72.3 

Philadelphia, Pa 63.4 

Rochester, N. Y 67.8 

Grand Haven, Mich... 70.9 

St. Louis, Mo 63.7 

New Orleans. La 76.0 

Galveston, Tex 84.6 

California Stations — 

Los Angeles 73.1 

Fresno 59.3 

Sacramento 67.6 

Red Bluff 61.9 



THE T 

The three great advantages of the California climate — abundant 
heat, continuous sunshine, and dry air — taken in connection with 
the fitness of the soil and the great length of the growing season, 
insure the characteristic excellence of California fruit, and the early 



73.0 


77.6 


78.6 


80.9 


82.9 


79.8 


82.2 


78.3 


68.9 


69.2 


68.6 


71.2 


75.2 


70.7 


73.6 


70.1 


68.6 


69.1 


67.3 


70.7 


75.2 


75.6 


76.2 


71.3 


71.4 


12>:i 


69.0 


73.1 


75.0 


75.7 


79.1 


73.5 


67.8 


68.8 


66.3 


67.3 


70.2 


65.9 


71.1 


67.6 


74.2 


78.1 


78.3 


78.8 


77.3 


74.0 


79.4 


78.0 


78.0 


79.3 


77.4 


78.1 


77.2 


75.6 


80.4 


78.5 


75.2 


73.0 


75.4 


76.2 


72.9 


74.3 


66.6 


73.3 


52.7 


42.4 


34.7 


34.7 


43.6 


55.1 


64.1 


48.3 


67.6 


66.1 


59.8 


59.8 


59.0 


62.4 


66.8 


63.6 


56.8 


43.7 


35.6 


35.3 


43.6 


51.6 


60.7 


48.8 


EE 


POINTS 


COMBINED 







WHY CALIFORNIA FRUIT IS LARGE AND FINE 23 

maturity, great growth, and abundant fruitage of our trees and 
vines. Heat, sunshine, dry air, and a rainless summer also minister 
directly to the curing of fruits in the open air. All things considered, 
it is doubtful whether any area in the world excels California in 
possession of natural adaptation to fruit production and preservation. 

A RECAPITULATION OF CALIFORNIA'S CLIMATIC 

ENDOWMENT 

Through the multitude of local observations, which seem per- 
plexing and almost contradictory, it is possible to clearly discern 
certain general conditions of both nature and culture, which may be 
briefly advanced as eharacteristically and distinctively Californian. 
Of these, perhaps the most striking is the length of the growing 
season. 

Take, for instance, the peach in a good peach region. The bloom 
may appear in February, followed by the grand foliage expanding 
to a leaf-size, marvelous to one unused to such peach leaves. The 
shoots of new growth rush out with vigor promised by such leaf; 
and yet the fruit below expands as though it would burst its skin 
in rapid enlargement — and still it grows. The new shoot, apparently 
weary of its several feet of extension, stops for a rest, and then, 
reviving, starts out its laterals — w'hile still below the peach is grow- 
ing. The laterals push out a foot or more — all carrying large, fresh 
leaves. While these are in full vigor, the fruit ripens, after having 
a full year's joint work of root and foliage, if it is a late variety. 
Is it any wonder it weighs a pound? But still the tree is active. 
It forms its terminal buds, and then all along the new main shoots 
and their laterals are formed the leaf and blossom buds for the 
following year. Still the foliage holds green and active, if the 
moisture below be adequate, and the leaves seem loath to fall in the 
ninth month from time of blooming. Is it any wonder California 
peaches are large and the trees require pruning and thinning to en- 
able them to carr}' the weight produced in such a season of growth? 
And what has been said of the peach is true of other trees, according 
to their nature and habits. The trees themselves are more eloquent 
of California's conditions for growth than descriptions or statistical 
tables can be made. 

But the quality of the light and heat, if the term is admissible, 
is a factor as well as their duration. The air, free, not alone from 
clouds, but from the insensible aqueous vapor which weakens sun- 
shine in its effort to serve vegetation in a humid climate, has a 
clearness and brilliance from its aridity which makes each day of 
the long, growing season more than a day in other climates, and 
thus adds to the calendar length of the growing season. The surplus 
light and heat also act directly in the chemistry which proceeds in the 
tissues of the plant, and we have not only size, but quality, color, aroma 
— everything which makes the perfect fruit precious and beautiful 
beyond words. 



24 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

It is true that for commercial purposes it is not possible to allow 
this process to go too far, for its later effects are higher sweetness, 
accompanied by such juiciness that the fruit can not endure trans- 
portation. But go to the tree to apply the only test which can fairly 
be put to a juicy fruit, and the demonstration of the service of clear, 
unobstructed sunshine through an adequate period is complete. But 
if this can not be done, place the judgment upon the mature peach 
carefully sun-dried and intelligently cooked, or upon the ripe peach 
skilfully canned, and the distinctive adaptations of California for 
fruit production will display themselves. 

But there are other agencies involved in the perfection of fruit 
than intensity and duration of light and heat. Without adequate 
moisture in the soil, the air which we have credited with such benign 
power in carrying heat and light for perfection of fruit would trans- 
mit the same as agencies for the destruction of the tree which 
bears it. If this moisture comes from rainfall, it descends at 
the time of the year when the tree is least active, consequently is 
least retarded by a clouded sky and moisture-laden air, and least 
affected by atmospheric disturbances. Strong storm winds find 
the tree with reefed sails, and able to endure pressure which would 
tear it to pieces if they came upon its grand spread of foliage on 
branches heavy with fruit. It is a priceless horticultural endow- 
ment that no tornado can pierce our protecting mountain-barriers, 
and that it is exceedingly rare that our local winds disturb the confident 
swaying of the branches and leaf movement beyond the activity which 
ministers to the sap flow. And if the adequate moisture is not from 
rainstorm, but by irrigation, the same facts remain, for the water 
reaches the tree without interrupting its aerial activity. Temperature 
is maintained, light is unobstructed, and the tree is refreshed with 
moisture without the chill and darkness which favor fungoid parasites. 
Of all the ways by which moisture could come to soils supporting fruit 
tree or vine, the natural by its time, and the artificial by its method, 
endow California with the best. 

The characteristics of the California climate which have been espe- 
cially pointed out in this sketch are not propitious to fruit culture 
when they exist to excessive degree, as in some interior or continental 
climates. Local conditions of altitude, distance from the sea, and 
exposure to the sweep of arctic winds, induce sudden and great weather 
changes which are serious in their effects. Excessively low percentage 
of atmospheric humidity, in connection with desiccating wind, often 
produce greater evaporation from the leaves than the roots can supply. 
Excessively dry air admits a parching sun heat at one time, and at 
another facilitates radiation of heat, until the rapid decline in tempera- 
ture makes killing frosts frequent. It is evident that California has 
these agencies constantly held in check by her insular situation and 
protecting environment, and owes her wonderful adaptation to growth 
of tree and perfection of fruit not more to the possession of certain 
conditions than to the fact of their existence in moderation. 



CHAPTER III 

THE FRUIT SOILS OF CALIFORNIA 

The favoring characteristics of the Cahfornia chmates, which have 
been described, find their fitting complement in the adaptation of the 
Cahfornia soils to the perfect development of fruit-bearing tree and 
vine. In their wonderful variety and consequent great range of 
special adaptations within narrow limits of area our soils also resemble 
our climates. As a man may sometimes find within the boundaries of 
an ordinary-sized farm such a diflference of atmospheric conditions 
that the same fruit will thrive in one spot and not in another, so he 
may find differences in soil which will tend to produce the same results. 
For this reason the precise spot in which to plant any given fruit must 
be chosen with regard to both soil and exposure. In the chapters 
devoted to the several fruits, there will be an attempt made to describe 
the soil requirements of each, so that the inexperienced planter may 
not err seriously in choosing the location for each kind of fruit he 
desires to grow. While this is true, it will also appear in these special 
chapters that the choice of roots upon which to bud or graft gives 
the planter a certain latitude and independence. This is of greatest 
value in the planting of home orchards, or orchards for local markets, 
in regions where the soil is not what is usually preferred for fruit 
production. With proper choice of stocks and wisdom and diligence 
in cultivation, one need hardly despair of growing good fruit on soil 
which will support any laudable plant growth. And yet in commercial 
orcharding, the secret of which is producing most abundantly and 
cheaply, too great attention can not be paid to choice of specially 
adapted soils. 

It is an interesting fact that more complete and exact knowledge 
exists of the soils of California than of any other State of the Union, 
and for this knowledge the public is indebted to E. W. Hilgard, Pro- 
fessor Emeritus of Agriculture, and Director of the Agricultural 
Experiment Stations of the University of California from 1875 to 
1905. For the last forty years he has given all the time he could 
spare from many other and pressing duties, to the examination, and. 
when needed, the analysis, of representative soil specimens, and to 
practical expositions of their nature, adaptations, and requirements in 
the event of exhaustion from too long cropping, and he has published 
a general treatise entitled. "Soils ; Their Formation. Properties. Compo- 
sition and Relations to Climate and Plant Growth in the Humid and 
Arid Regions." which includes the results of his long study of Cali- 
fornia soils and climates. 

Since the honorable retirement of Professor Hilgard and of Pro- 
fessor R. H. Loughridge. who was for many years closely associated 
with him in soil work, the University instruction and research in soils 
have been in charge^ of Professor C. P>. Lipman. whose original work, 
especially in .soil bacteriology, is making notable contributions to a 
25 



26 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

fuller understanding of the distinctive character of California soils 
and their intelligent ultilization. 

Very extensive studies of California soils have been recently made 
under the direction of Dr. Milton Whitney, Chief of the Bureau of 
Soils of the United States Department of Agriculture, and a new 
classification and nomenclature of them, from his points of view, with 
extended maps of their occurrence, are to be found in the special reports 
of the Bureau. 

In 1913 a systematic and comprehensive study of California soils 
preliminary to their mapping and an exposition of their suitabilities was 
begun by Professor C. F. Shaw of the University of California. 

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF CALIFORNIA SOILS 

One of the most interesting and important recent achievements in 
soil investigation consists in demonstrating distinctive differences be- 
tween soils formed under arid and under humid climatic conditions. 
In the development of this subject certain distinctive characters of 
California soils clearly appear, and they are of direct relation to the 
thrift, productiveness, treatment and longevity of fruit trees. These 
characters are: (a) lightness and consequent permeability and ease 
of cultivation; (b) depth, admitting exceptional root extension and 
penetration; and (c) richness, containing some kinds of plant food 
in considerably greater amounts than are found in the soils of humid 
regions. These characteristics, as demonstrated by Prof. Hilgard, 
may be outlined in this way with special reference to their relations 
to fruit growing. 

Lightness. — California soils predominately exhibit the sandy, 
silty or pulverulent nature of all soils formed under arid conditions, 
save in case of pre-existing clay formations of former geological epochs, 
as well as slack-water deposts of the present epoch, all of which are 
substantially independent of climate. While "sand" in the humid 
regions means virtually quartz grains only, in the arid country it means 
very largely grains and powder of the other soil-forming minerals as 
well. While, therefore, in the humid region sandy land as a rule 
means poor land, in the arid, on the contrary, sandy lands are at 
least as desirable as heavier ones, both on the score of high productive- 
ness, durability, and ease of cultivation, together with ready resistance 
to drouth. 

Depth. — Another point of great importance is that the difference 
between soil and subsoil, which is so striking and important in regions 
of abundant rainfall, is largely obliterated in arid climates. Very com- 
monly hardly a perceptible change of tint or texture is found for depths 
of several feet ; and what is more important, material from such 
depths, when thrown on the surface oftentimes subserves the agricul- 
tural uses of a soil nearly or quite as well as the original surface soil. 
The unconcern with which irrigators proceed to level or otherwise 
grade their land, even though this may involve covering up large 
areas of surface soil with subsoil from several feet depth ; the rapidity 



CALIFORNIA SOIL CHARACTERS 27 

with which the red loam of the placer mines of the Sierra Nevada 
foothills is re-covered with the natural forest growth of the region, 
etc., are examples familiar to the residents but surprising to new- 
comers, who are accustomed to dread the upturning of the subsoil as 
likely to deprive them of remunerative crops for several years, until 
the "raw" subsoil has had time to be "vitalized" by the fallowing effect 
of the atmosphere, and to acquire the needful amounts of humus or 
vegetable mold. Thus the surface soil, which in the humid regions 
supplies the bulk of the nourishment, becomes here of minor impor- 
tance, serving chiefly as a mulch to prevent waste of moisture ; while 
the active process of nutrition occurs in the deeper portion of the soil 
stratum, whose composition, as well as condition of disintegration and 
aeration, is substantially the same as above. The second foot is rarely 
found to differ materially from the first, even as to humus content; 
for the latter, being almost exclusively derived from the humification 
of roots, the leaves and herbage on the surface being mostly oxidized 
away under the intense heat and abundant aeration of summer ; it 
not uncommonly happens in very porous soils that the first six inches 
of surface soil are poorer in humus than the second foot. 

Practical Results of Lightness and Depth. — The "lightness" and 
previousness of the prevailing soils of the arid region permit of the 
penetration of roots to depths which in the humid region are inac- 
cessible to them on account of the dense subsoils, which prevent the 
needful access of air. This deep penetration enables even annual plants 
to avail themselves directly of the stores of moisture in the substrata, 
at depths which in the humid region are scarcely reached save by the 
tap-roots of some perennials and trees ; while the latter themselves 
reach depth never approached by them in the region of summer rains. 
Professor Hilgard has personally found the ends of the roots of grape- 
vines at a depth of twenty-three feet, in a gravelly clay-loam ; from 
ten to fifteen feet are ordinary depths reached by the root system of 
fruit trees. Even the roots of cereals have been found to penetrate 
to a depth of twelve feet in California sandy alluvial soils and to four- 
teen feet in loams. Such depth of rooting, when conservation of mois- 
ture is secured by proper surface cultivation, enables deciduous fruit 
trees to grow thrifty and bear fine fruit through six months of drouth 
while as many weeks of drouth may bring distress and loss of fruit to 
surface-rooting trees on the shallow soils of the humid region. Recent 
investigations at the California Agricultural Experiment Station have 
also disclosed that the good physical and chemical conditions of the 
deeper layers of our soils have also made possible the penetration from 
the surface layers, of various forms of micro organisms upon which 
we are dependent not only for a solution of the insoluble plant food, 
but for the addition of nitrog-en to the soil from the atmosphere. 

Richness. — The foregoing conditions are rendered the more sig- 
nificant and etTective through the third characteristic of soils formed 
in arid climates. The average aggregate amounts of plant-food ingre- 
dients are markedly greater in the arid than in the humid soils, wherever 
their derivation is at all generalized. Among the agriculturally impor- 
tant ingredients contained in larger average amounts in the arid soils 



28 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

than in the humid, Hme stands foremost ; its percentage in soils 
not derived from calcareous formations being from twelve to fourteen 
times greater in the arid than in the humid soils. Magnesia follows 
lime in this respect, but the average difference is only about half as 
great. The average content of potash in the arid soils exceeds that in 
the humid in about the proportion of one to three or four. But no 
such constant difference exists in respect to phosphoric acid. As re- 
gards humus, and the nitrogen of which it is the carrier and reservoir, 
its amount is usually considerably less than in the humid soils ; but 
the total nitrogen percentage does not differ widely, because the 
humus of arid soils contains, on the average, from three to five times 
as much nitrogen as is found in the humus of humid soils, and there- 
fore, the supply of soil nitrogen is very nearly the same in both regions, 
while from several causes, the humus-nitrogen of arid soils is more 
available to plants. 

Practical Lessons from the Constitution of Our Soils. — The ex- 
traordinary depth of our soils, which reveals a favorable physical, 
chemical and biological nature, teaches the importance and essential 
nature of: (1) deep tillage; (2) deep incorporation of manures and 
fertilizers; (3) deep irrigation. It is clear that if we can make condi- 
tions just as congenial for the roots of plants in the lower layers of 
the soil as in the upper, there is but one course left open to us, namely : 
taking advantage of the opportunities afforded us by nature, if we 
would maintain the fertility of our soils. To do this we must en- 
courage the deep rooting of our trees, and nothing in the line of soil 
management can accomplish the desired end so well as making available 
to the roots in the deeper soil layers, air, plant food and water by the 
methods above enumerated. 

CLASSIFICATION OF CALIFORNIA SOILS 

Any attempt to classify the soils of California upon scientific lines 
or even to describe them in their wonderful variety, according to their 
geographical occurrence, would lead beyond the limitations of a treatise 
upon the practice of fruit growing. Rather let an attempt be made 
to designate certain grades of soil with brief characterization of their 
leading features as they are related to the growth of fruits. By such 
a course it may be made to appear that though the soils of the State 
are predominantly light, deep and rich and thus eminently fitted for 
fruit growing, there are many degrees in the possession of these' char- 
acters or any of them, in local soils, and upon this individual manifesta- 
tion they rate all the way from perfection to defectiveness. Let a 
classification proceed then upon a descending scale. 

Light, Deep Loams. — Admixture of clay with enough coarse 
materials to secure permeability to air and water, ease in cultivation, 
deep root penetration and free drainage of surplus water, produces 
soil of the highest adaptability to the growth of fruit trees and vines. 
These soils rae popularly known as loams. They are designated as 
sandy loams, medium loams and clay loams, according to the propor- 
tion of clay commingled with the sand or coarse materials. 



CALIFORNIA VALLF.Y LOAMS 29 

Professor Hilgard has devised the following nomenclature of soils 
based upon their content of clay ; sandy soils, less than 5 per cent of clay ; 
sandy loams, from 5 to 10 per cent; ordinary or medium loams, from 
10 to 15 per cent; clay loams, from 15 to 20 per cent; clay soils, from 
20 to 50 per cent of clay. 

The coarse materials are sand grains of various sizes or rock par- 
ticles in various degrees of disintegration. The fine materials are clay 
and rock powder, commonly designated as fine silt. Loam soils may 
result from deposits by flowing water or may consist of debris but little 
removed from local rock disintegration. They include a wide variety 
of materials but agree in the possession of striking adaptability to fruit 
culture. Some of the leading instances of such soils may be cited. 

Loams of the Valley Plains. — On the east side of the Sacra- 
mento \'alley low ridges and swales at right angles to the river's 
course come in from the foothills, forming a gently undulating plain 
with a fall of from fifteen to twenty feet per mile, sometimes right up 
to the river channels. Nearly all the soils of the east side have a red- 
dish tinge, showing the admixture of the red foothill soil and demon- 
strating, by the way, that all these lands are well drained. In cuts 
ten to twelve feet deep, made by the sloughs, the reddish plains loam 
is seen to reach from six to ten feet in depth, being then underlaid by 
gravelly substrata. The width of this class of profusely fertile valley 
land, east and west, varies considerably, according to the meanderings 
of the rivers. Away from the water courses, the higher lands of the 
valleys are largely red or yellow loams, sometimes clayey and difficult 
of cultivation unless taken just in the right condition, sometimes 
gravelly and apt to dry out unless the natural water supply is supple- 
mented by irrigation, but mostly a free-working, fairly retentive, light 
loam, very satisfactory for some kinds of fruit. 

The soils of the San Joaquin Valley have, as a rule, a much greater 
admixture of sand than those of the Sacramento Valley ; there is also 
a more distinct subdivision of the valley lands into upland or "bench" 
lands, and lowland or alluvial lands proper. 

Upon the upland or plains soils, especially of Fresno and Tulare 
counties, wonderful progress in fruit-growing by irrigation has been 
made during the last few years. Though its summer aspect is most 
forbidding and almost desert-like in lack of vegetation, the application 
of water has shown exceptional quickness of growth, early bearing, 
and lavish productiveness of tree and vine. These plains loams vary 
in appearance, and are from this fact locally named, "reddish loam." 
"white ash," and "sand hill." All are distinctly calcareous. Even in 
the case of the latter, which is the lightest and made of almost 90 per 
cent of inert sand, it is so deep and has its plant food in such highly 
available condition that it is producing very large crops of fruits where 
there is no rise of the bottom water to prevent root penetration. In 
the foothills of the Sierra Nevada there are some loose loams of light 
color resulting from the decomposition of granite, but they are as a 
rule inferior to the red foothill soils, which are more clayey, and will 
be mentioned among the clay loams later. 



30 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

The soils prevailing in the valley of Southern California, from 
Redlands at its head to Los Angeles at it opening out toward the sea, 
consist chiefly of granitic sand, which at some points on the slopes 
forms the soils exclusively, but everywhere constitutes a prominent 
ingredient of the valley and mesa lands. These mesa lands are con- 
spicuous for their orange-red tint, and the red sandy loam of which 
they are composed, to depths varying from ten to as much as eighty 
feet, is evidently the choice soil for orange culture. It is manifest 
that at some remote epoch it filled the entire valley. Of the middle 
portion much has been washed away, but islands of it form red-land 
tracts of greater or less extent all over the region, traversed by and 
more or less commingled with, the gigantic wash from the valleys and 
canyons of the Sierra Madre. The latter frequently consists largely 
of gravel, and were it not for the luxuriant natural vegetation borne 
by these gravel beds, few would have thought of devoting them to the 
costly experiment of orange planting, which, nevertheless, has proved 
eminently successful even on these unpromising-looking masses of 
debris. In the upper valley (San Bernardino Valley proper) the red 
loam is conspicuous, and gives its name to the flourishing city and 
citrus district of Redlands, on the terminal slope ; but the heavy flow 
of water from the upper canyons, notably from that of the Santa Ana 
River, has scoured it out of the valley itself, and left there, at least 
on the northern portion, gray and blackish granitic loams of great 
depth and productiveness, underlaid, and therefore underdrained, by 
the enormous gravel beds that hold the artesian water of this favored 
region. 

The reddish mesa soils prevail through the smaller Southern Cali- 
fornia valleys as well, and are similar in character, as they are derived 
from similar geological formations. 

Where the surface descends gradually to the seashore, and not in 
bluffs, there are as in Los Angeles and Orange counties, coast flats 
several miles in width, where the soil is a dark-colored sandy loam, 
glistening with scales of mica, and more or less affected with alkali 
in the lower portions. Similar soils are found in tracts of greater 
or less extent up the coast as far as Santa Barbara at least. As a 
rule, these seashore lands are very productive, but fruits for them must 
be chosen with reference to their low level and exposure to coast 
influences. 

The light loams of the so-called desert region of Southern California 
are not inferior in productive capacity to some of the best soils of the 
great valley, which they greatly resemble, save in the scarcity of 
humus, or vegetable matter. Only a detailed survey, however, can 
determine the tracts having an arable soil, as against those overrun 
by arid sand. The soil of the Colorado River bottom is highly produc- 
tive, easily worked, being quite light. It is a highly calcareous soil, 
and now, as the water of the Colorado River has been made available 
for irrigation, is yielding rich returns for cultivation. 

The valleys of the seaward slope of the Coast Range have mostly 
gray, light, and silty, rather than sandy soils, quite similar in appear- 
ance from Ventura to Humboldt county, though differing considerably 



CALIFORNIA ALLUVIAL LOAMS 31 

in composition, those of the southern region being more calcareous, 
and apparently richer in phosphoric acid ; as the coast region consists 
for the most part of low ranges with intervening valleys, the valleys 
are, as a rule, small, though a few show considerable area. In such 
a country the soil surface shows wide diversity with its smaller areas 
than on the vast stretches of the great interior valley; consequently, 
so far as soil goes, the coast farms are often suited to a wider range of 
fruits than the interior valley farms of similar size. 

ALLUVIAL OR SEDIMENTARY LOAMS 

These soils have been considered from the earliest plantings by 
Americans as par excellence the fruit soils of the great valley of central 
and northern California. They occur along the courses of existing 
streams, and extend back to variable distances, until they merge into 
the valley loams, or adobes. These deposits are considerably higher 
than the present beds of the streams, and are sometimes described 
as "next to river bottom." They consist of fine alluvium, with seldom 
any admixture of coarse materials. These river soils are usually very 
deep and they are naturally well drained. 

These deposits cross the valley in somewhat irregular courses ; the)' 
are of greater or less width according to the drainage area whence 
they have come. They vary also in depth, and taper down on either 
side to the level of the red loam or adobe upon which they have been 
deposited. Such strips are first chosen by the fruit planters of the 
district in. which they occur. In the valleys of the rivers crossing the 
eastern side of the San Joaquin Valley, there are, bordering the streams 
as well as Tulare Lake, considerable areas of brown to blackish loam 
varying from heavy to light, but for the most part easily tilled and 
exceedingly rich. Considerable fruit has been grown for years on 
these situations, and some kinds do well on these bottoms which do not 
show adaptation to the plains. Some even of the higher lying portions 
of these "black lands" support thrifty orchards without irrigation. 
The wider stretches of alluvial soils in the upper part of the valley, as 
in the Mussel Slough country and the Visalia region, for instance, are 
notably well adapted to fruit growing. The occasional intrusion of 
alkali, which must be carelly avoided, is the chief obstacle to the 
general approval of these alluvial lands for fruit purposes. 

Soil of similar character is found in some small valleys consistmg 
of an alluvial wash from the bordering hills which in some places 
reaches a depth of thirty feet or more without notable change in char- 
acter. Such soils have proved very fertile and durable. 

The rich river bottom, adjacent to the beds of the main rivers and 
sloughs of the valley, has usually a dark, rich, and moist soil, easily 
tilled and not subject to baking and cracking. It is largely used for the 
growth of vegetables and alfalfa, but considerable areas have been 
planted with fruit trees, especially with pears, which do not sufTer from 
submergence of their roots for considerable time. 

In the coast valleys of the State there are also very extensive areas 
of alluvial soils which are largely used in fruit production, as well 



32 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

as upland loams formed in place by the disintegration of local rock 
formations. The famous fruit region extending from Oakland south- 
ward nearly one hundred miles, including the Alameda and Santa 
Clara Valleys, has very large areas of alluvial soil, ranging from deep, 
rich blackish loams used for vegetables and small fruits to lighter 
loams resulting from intermixture of sediment brought by streams 
from adjacent hillsides with the clay of the valley bottom. It is to 
these deep, rich alluvial deposits that the region owes its great reputa- 
tion in fruit lines. 

CLAY LOAMS 

Of loams containing sufficient clay to render them somewhat heavy 
and tenacious, there is also a great variety in California. Their suit- 
ability for dififerent fruits depends upon selection of roots adapted to 
their character and upon the depth and degree of retentiveness of the 
soils themselves. They are more difficult of tillage than the free loams, 
but offer some compensation therefor in their richness and durability. 

Clay Loams of the Foothills and Valley Border. — The soils of 
the foothills of the Sierra Nevada, throughout its courses along the 
great valley, vary from a moderately clayey loam to a heavy, though 
not uncommonly gravelly, often orange-red clay. This character seems 
to be sensibly the same, whether the soil be derived from the decompo- 
sition of the ancient slate bed-rock or directly from the dark-colored 
granites, thus creating a presumption that the two rocks are closely 
related. The soils are highly charged with iron to the extent of from 
seven to over twelve per cent, which being finely divided, imparts to 
them the intense orange-red tint. The soils of the foothills agree with 
the soils of the valley in having a good percentage of lime, while the 
supply of potash and phosphates, as well as of organic matter, is 
smaller, and sometimes low, though never apparently inadequate for 
present productiveness, in the presence of so much lime. 

Along the base of the foothills of the Sierra there is in Fresno, 
Tulare, and part of Kern county, a narrow belt, irregular in width, of 
partly red and partly black clay or adobe, so highly calcareous as to 
break up, when dry, into small fragments, producing a condition that 
has received the name "dry bog." It is upon this that many of the 
citrus orchards of the Porterville and Mt. Campbell districts are chiefly 
grown. A white, calcareous marl sometimes occurs beneath this soil 
at varying depths, inducing chlorosis or yellowing of citrus leaves, 
owing to its impervious nature which does not allow of good drainage 
and therefore kills the roots through suffocation and acid production. 
Westward of this "dry bog" land there is a belt of reddish or brown 
loam soils, corresponding to those similarly located in the Sacramento 
Valley, but generally more clayey, and hence frequentlv designated 
as adobe by contrast with the very sandy soils of the valley at large, 
although properly thev should be classed simply as clayey loams. This 
belt is eight to ten miles wide in middle Tulare county and narrows to 
the north and south. Here these lands have a gentle slope of ten to 
twenty feet per mile from the base of the foothills, and appear to be 
underlaid at a depth of twelve to fifteen feet by water-bearing gravel. 



SOILS DEFECTIVE FOR FRUITS 33 

The soil is a rcdtlisli. more or less sandy, loam, changing little in its 
aspect for several feet. Its adaptation to fruit is shown by the products 
of the Lindsay region. 

CLAY SOILS 

Thus far a very small area of true adobe* soil has been employed 
in horticulture. There is a great difference in the character of what 
is known as adobe in different localities. Its color varies, as the 
popular terms "black waxy," "black," "brown," and "gray" adobe 
indicate. Its physical condition and chemical composition also vary 
greatly. The black adobe of the east side of the Sacramento Valley 
is easily tilled as compared with the gray adobe on the west side, 
which is very refractory and often largely impregnated with alkali. 
To render soil of adobe character useful for fruit growing, this 
tendency to dry out and crack, thus allowing evaporation from below 
as well as from the surface, must be overcome. The discussion of this 
point belongs to the chapter on cultivation. Adobe soils are, as a rule, 
rich and durable and therefore promise long fruitfulness to trees and 
vines with roots adapted to heavy soils, but difficulty of cultivation, 
excessive retention of water, and other evils are always present. Some 
suggestions on the treatment of such soils will be given in the chapter 
on fertilization. 

DEFECTIVE SOILS 

Although California soils are predominantly of the depth, light- 
ness and richness best suited to the growth and bearing of fruit trees 
and vines, it should always be borne in mind that there are marked 
exceptions, and failure to observe this fact has resulted in considerable 
disappointment and loss. There is in California much land w'hich is 
bad from a horticultural point of view and it is apt to occur even in the 
vicinity of lands of the highest excellence. It is, therefore, necessary 
to advise that the closest examination to be made before investment be 
made in the planting of fruits. 

Although there are instances of deficiency in plant food in Cali- 
fornia soils and considerable areas of land sterile through excess of 
saline and alkaline salts, these are usually indicated by the local reputa- 
tion of the tracts, if the newcomer will take pains to make inquiry. 
It is rather the more obscure, subsoil conditions which lead to loss or 
failure, and they may be unknown even to men who have owned or 
farmed the land for years for ordinary field crops. These defects are, 
in the main, three: 

Leachy Subsoils. — While it is best in all cases to choose deep 
soils for cropping purposes, it is frequently profitable to grow fruit 
on soils with defective subsoils. Among these defective subsoils there 
is frequently encountered, underlying good alluvial loams, a very per- 
vious sand or gravel which allows of a too rapid escape of moisture 
and plant food. This may result in starving the tree or killing it for 

•This name has been erroneously applied to the loam commonly used in the construction 
of adobe houses. Agriculturally, it means "a heavy clay soil," such as could not be used in 
building. 



34 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

want of water. Under such circumstances it is possible with three 
or four feet of good loam above the gravel to maintain profitably the 
shallower rooted trees by practicing heavy green manuring and con- 
stant summer cultivation to conserve what moisture the loam retains 
and by recourse to irrigation, when required. 

Hardpan. — It has ferquently been observed that even where 
hardpan has been blasted prior to tree planting, the evil effects of 
waterlogging in a rather retentive overlying soil have either killed 
trees or made them unprofitable. This condition occurs not only on 
level land, but also on rather steep hillsides where on a priori considera- 
tions it would never be expected. In such cases drainage gives imme- 
diate relief and the maintenance of a good humus supply in the soil 
with constant summer cultivation, will usually insure good moisture 
conditions. 

"Plow Sole" or "Plow Pan." — Constant plowing to the same 
depth or a failure to break up thoroughly the silty deposits at the 
bottom of irrigation furrows may in a few seasons produce a hard- 
ened and difficulty permeable layer of soil known, according to its 
origin, as plow sole or "irrigation hardpan." This may also be aggra- 
vated through the treading of stock and fruit pickers. Such hardened 
soil layers interfere with root development and make for poor aeration 
and water supply. They must be broken up by plowing or subsoiling. 

Rise of Ground Water. — The rise of the water table mainly 
due to excessive irrigation or the impermeability of one of the under- 
lying soil layers is a question of the most serious significance and one 
which the prospective purchaser of land or the owner of cropped land 
must not lose sight of. For this reason precautions taken in the ex- 
amination of land for hardpan, irrigation with necessary, but not 
superfluous, amounts of water and adequate provision for drainage wiii 
not only go far toward making land profitable at the time cropping is 
commenced, but will prevent troubles for the future through the ac- 
cumulation of alkali and other baneful physiological effects on plants 
of a high water table. 

Alkali. — The term "alkali" denotes an accumulation of salts, in 
a limited depth of soil, which may be of such nature and quantity as 
to render the soil partially or totally unfit for profitable cropping. 
The term has no necessary reference to the reaction of the soil, as is 
commonly supposed, therefore, a misnomer, and should not be confused 
with the term "alkaline," as referred to soil, since the latter denotes 
merely a "sweet" or favorable condition for the development of most 
of our crop plants. 

The "Alkali" salts may include common salt, Glauber salt, car- 
bonate of soda, Epsom salt, the chlorides of calcium and magnesium 
and more rarelv some others, but for practical purposes we may take 
the ordinary classification namely that of "black" and "white" alkali 
as being sufficient for the needs of soil management. By the "black" 
alkali which is by far the most harmful of the sodium of salts men- 
tioned, we mean carbonate of soda. It is so called because it dissolves 
out the humus and forms a black slimy layer on the surface. Very 



CHARACTERS OF ALKALI SOILS 35 

small quantities of this salt are sufficient to make clay soils unworkable 
because of the puddling effect it has on clay, and similarly very small 
quantities of it have the power of stopping the important process of 
nitrification. Since poorly aerated soils in the arid regions are favor- 
able to the reactions which produce "black" alkali, especially where 
carbonates are plentiful or where excessive amounts of nitrate of soda 
are used for fertilizing, no pains should be spared to insure to soils, as 
nearly as possible, perfect aeration through drainage and tillage ; great 
care should be exercised in the use of irrigation water, and nitrate of 
soda should be employed sparingly. 

The term "white alkali" is usually applied to either common salt 
or Glauber salt or both in soils. Where present in sufficient quantity 
white alkali salts may, through evaporation of water, be deposited on 
the surface of the soil as a white efferescence, such as that seen in 
exaggerated form on the Nevada desert, on some soils of the San 
Joaquin Valley and on some of the Coachella Valley soils. Of the 
"white" alkali salts common salt is by far the more harmful and most 
fruit trees are not very resistant to it. They can, however, be success- 
fully grown in very considerable quantities of Glauber salt. 

The actual tolerance of fruit trees for the various salts men- 
tioned, varies greatly with the different trees for the different salts, 
and it is always best, when planting on alkali land is contemplated, 
to consult the revised reprint of Bulletins 128 and 133 of the California 
Experiment Station, and after having determinations for alkali made 
on the soil, to be guided by the information therein contained. The 
same publication also contains much valuable information wnth refer- 
ence to the reclamation of alkali land and describes conditions under 
which it may and may not be feasible to reclaim such lands so as to 
preclude the possibility of useless expenditures. 

Prospecting for Soil Defects. — For subterranean prospecting, 
Professor Hilgard commends a steel rod not less than a quarter of 
an inch in diameter (round or square, preferably the latter), well 
pointed at one end, and provided at the other with a stout iron ring 
for the reception of a stout cross-handle, such as is used for post-hole 
augers. With such a prod, or sounding rod, not less than five feet in 
length, the exploration of the subsoil for hard-pan or dense clay 
layers becomes a matter of a few minutes. It is easy also to detect 
thus the presence of underlying layers of quicksand, gravel, or other 
loose materials through which irrigation water would waste, or which 
would prevent the rise of bottom water within the reach of plant roots, 
by the large interspaces between their grains. Any remaining doubts 
as to the nature of such underlying materials at particular points can 
then quickly be solved by the use of a post-hole auger or by digging, 
for thorough inspection of each foot of depth which may be found 
desirable. Subsoil prospecting or sampling can also be very easily 
done by boring with an ordinary carpenter's auger. 1^ inches in 
diameter — the shank being lengthened by welding-in a piece of steel, 
three or four feet in length, according to the depth it is thought de- 
sirable to penetrate, ^parate samples for each foot of depth are thus 
easily taken. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE WILD FRUITS OF CALIFORNIA 

The wild fruits of California are numerous, and for the most part 
peculiar to the region, being either of local genera or local species of 
more widely distributed genera. Very few are identical with the wild 
fruits common to great areas of the continent. For this reason our 
wild fruits constitute a very interesting subject for botanical study, 
and they are now, perhaps, more widely than ever before, attracting 
the attention of botanical promologists. Viewed from the standpoint 
of practical pomology or horticulture, our wild fruits can not be 
claimed, on the whole, to have attained any very great importance. 

A few fruits, as will be noted further on, have demonstrated their 
culinary or household value, and are locally sought for, but none have 
any notable commercial value. This may be due to the fact that some 
of our most delicious wild fruits are very exacting in their choice of 
conditions, and can not be moved far, even within the limits of our own 
State. 

Another reason why we have made little of our own wild species 
is found in the fact that our climate favors the superior growth of the 
best improved fruits of nearly all parts of the world. Therefore, we 
have little occasion for recourse to the improvement of local wild 
fruits, because of superior hardiness and adaptation, as has been done 
in other parts of the country. 

The distribution of our wild fruits is determined by limitations of 
areas of similar climatic conditions. In a general way it may be said 
that fruits are most abundant in foothill and mountain regions, and 
that our great valleys have always been practically destitute of them, 
except along streams borders. These fruits are most abundant in 
the northern portion of the State, but some exist throughout the State, 
usually thriving at higher elevations as they proceed southward. 

Oregon Crabapple (Pirus rivularis). — This fruit, though more 
abundant in the more northerly regions of the coast, as its name in- 
dicates, is found in the northwest counties of this State. It chooses a 
moist situation, becomes a tree fifteen to twenty-five feet high, shows 
white bloom, and red or yellow oblong fruit, about half an inch long. 
The flavor is rather acid, but the fruit is eaten by the Indians, and 
was sometimes used for jelly-making by early settlers. 

Wild Plum (Prunus subcordata). — This must be regarded as 
one of the most useful of our wild fruits. Even now, when the plum 
varieties of all the world have been introduced, residents in some of 
the Sierra regions, where an excellent variety (Kelloggii) abounds, 
prefer it to the cultivated fruit, both for eating and preserving and 
jelly-making. The typical species is widely distributed over the moun- 
tainous regions of the State, and is a low shrub with white bloom and 
fruit three-quarters of an inch long, of red color and inferior pulp. 

36 



WILD CHERRIES AND GRAPES 37 

The better variety has a narrower ran^e. forms a larger shrub, and bears 
a yellow fruit, larger and better than the typical species. Some 
attempts have been made to improve this variety by cultivation and 
selection of seedlings, and the results are promising, as fruit has been 
shown at our fairs notably better than the wild gatherings. The roots 
have also been used to some extent as stocks, but seem to possess no 
marked advantage. The late Mr. Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, re- 
ported that grafting an improved plum on the wild stock seems to 
cause the root to grow to much greater size than natural to it. Ob- 
servation upon grafted and non-grafted seedlings in the same nursery 
row convinced him of this behavior. Other experimenters have con- 
demned the stock because of dwarfing and suckering. In the early 
days the wild plums in the mining regions of the mountains were 
largely made use of and are highly praised by pioneers. 

Oso Berry (Osmaronia cerasiformis). — This fruit is sometimes 
called the "California false plum." It has a plum-like form, one- 
half inch long, and is of a rich, blue-black color, but is bitter, though 
not disagreeable to birds and animals, which feed upon it. The white 
bloom of the shrub has an almond odor. Used as a stock, the plum 
varieties grafted upon it have been dwarfed. 

Wild Cherries (Prunus sp.). — Quite a group of wild fruits come 
under this generic grouping, and they have marked and widely differ- 
ent characteristics. The western Choke-cherry (Prunus demissa) 
closely resembles the Eastern choke-cherry, and bears its round, red, 
or dark purple fruit on a racme . It is used for marmalade by 
housewives in the mountain districts. This species has proved of some 
utility both for its fruit and as a stock for grafting in early days when 
better cherry stock was not available. Another species, Islay (Prunus 
ilicifolia), has evergreen foliage, and is a useful hedge plant. 

Of species bearing fruits in umbels, or true cherry style, we have 
the Bitter Cherry (Prunus emarginata), which makes a handsome 
tree, sometimes thirty feet high, but its oval, dark red fruit is quite 
bitter and astringent. The bush form bearing bright red fruit in- 
tensely bitter, is the variety of Calif ornica. 

California Grape (Vitis Calif ornica). — Along our streams the 
native grape-vine attains large size and fruits freely, the fruit re- 
sembling the "frost grape" of the East. The vine frequently covers 
and sometimes kills large trees with the density of its foliage. Some 
variation is reported in the species, but it is possible that .some of the 
better kinds are seedlings from some imported species, bird planted. 
The species has attained something of a reputation as a phyloxera- 
rcsisting root for grafting, but it has proved exacting in its choice 
of soils and situations, and otherwise not desirable, and ?ome East- 
ern species are now relied upon for this service. 

Elderberry (Sambucus glauca). — The elderberry makes a fine 
tree in California, sometimes twenty feet or more in height, atid with 
a trunk a foot and a half in diameter. The fruit is borne in large 
quantities and is used \o some extent for preserves and pastry. 



38 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Raspberries (Rubus sp.). — In the mountains of the eastern part 
of the State is a scarlet hemispherical berry of pleasant flavor, which 
is called "thimbleberry" (Rubus parviflorus.) It seems to have an 
advantage over a variety (velutinus) of the same species which is 
found near the coast and has a dry, insipid fruit. Another raspberry, 
which is found in all hilly and mountainous regions, both on the coast 
and in the interior is Rubus leucodermis. It resembles the black-cap 
raspberry of the Atlantic slope, except that it has yellowish-re J fruit. 
This fruit is quite largely gathered for domestic uses, and some efforts 
have been made to cultivate the plants. 

Salmon Berry (Rubus spectabilis). — The beauty, size, and de- 
licious flavor of this fruit are highly commended by all who have 
enjoyed it in the upper coast counties of California and farther north- 
ward. The plant makes a strong bush, five to ten feet high, and 
delights in the woods and shady banks of streams. The praise of all 
w^ho know the fruit has led to frequent attempts to introduce the 
plant to warmer and drier parts of the State, but such efforts have 
thus far uniformly failed. 

Wild Blackberry (Rubus vitifolius). — This fruit should perhaps 
be called a "dewberry," as it has trailing, or, at most, but partially 
raised stems, which extend from five to twenty feet. The plant occurs 
abundantly on banks of streams and other sufficiently moist locations, 
both in the coast and interior regions of the State. Around the 
margin of Humboldt Bay, on land cleared by fire or axe, blackberries 
spring up abundantly on the denuded land. Tons of the fruit are said 
to remain after the local housewives have done their utmost in pre- 
serving and jelly-making. In the low-land region around Stockton 
considerable quantities are sometimes gathered for sale. The fruit, 
which has been held in high repute ever since pioneer days, is oblong, 
black, and sweet. The species is variable, and the anomaly, a white 
blackberry, has been reported from Del Norte county. The native 
wild blackberry is one of the parents of the Loganberry and of some 
of Mr. Burbank's hybrids which are widely know. 

Wild Strav^^berries (Fragaria sp.). — We have in California two 
Eastern species : Fragaria vesca and F. Virginiana. Thus far these 
have only been reported from localities in the Sierra mountain region. 
Another, the sand strawberry, has been found identical with a South 
American species, Chilensis, and it occurs along the coast, where the 
fruit is esteemed, and is sometimes abundant enough to gather in 
quantity. A fourth species, wood strawberry, is local, and is named 
Calif ornica. It bears a small round fruit and is partial to the coast 
region. Recently some cultural attention has been given to the wild 
strawberries, and varieties worthy of propagation have been reported 
by growers resident in the Sierra region. Mr. Albert F. Etter of 
Briceland, Humboldt county, has secured notable results in crossing 
with the wild strawberry, as will be noted in the chapter on that fruit. 

Wild Gooseberries and Currants (Ribes sp.). — Some of our 
currant species are achieving quite a reputation abroad as ornamental 
shrubs, but they bear insipid fruit. The fruit of Rihes tenuiflorum is, 



CALIFORNIA WILD BERRIES 39 

however, more agreeable, and is esteemed for jellies, etc., by dwellers 
in its region, which is the mountain region of the extreme north of 
the State. We also have a species {bracteosum) which has something 
of the black currant flavor and a fair-sized fruit, black with whitish 
bloom, and very sweet. 

There are also several species of Ribcs which are classed with the 
gooseberries, but only three bear edible fruit. One of these (Ribes 
divaricatum) is peculiar to this coast; another (Ribes oxyacanthoides) 
occurs at an elevation in the Sierra Nevada and thence extends east- 
ward beyond the Rocky Mountains. The berries are small to medium, 
of pleasant flavor, and well armed with spines. Another species (Ribes 
leptanthnm), common in San Luis Obispo and Kern counties, resembles 
the flavor of the cultivated gooseberry, and is free from spines. 

Cranberries and Huckleberries (Vaccinium sp.). — We have sev- 
eral species belonging to the same botanical genus as the Eastern 
cranberry, but quite different from it both in growth of the plant and 
character of fruit. The fruit of two species is reddish, but insipid. 
Other species (V. ovatnm, etc.) have dark blue or purple fruit. Some 
of these are locally esteemed, and the argument drawn from them is 
that the cranberry of commerce would succeed. It should be stated, 
however, that the situations in which these plants thrive are not at 
all according to the requirements of the bog cranberry. A huckleberry 
(Vaccinium ovatnm) is largely gathered in the redwood region of 
Northern California, for canning and pie-making. The berries are 
juicy and delicious, and the preserved fruit has a very agreeable flvivor. 
In one year as many as two thousand boxes were profitably gathered 
on the hills of western Sonoma county. 

Other Berries. — There are many small, wild fruits commonly 
designated as berries, which are of considerable botanical interest. 
The fruit, too, may be said to be edible, judging by the taste of Indians, 
birds, and wild beasts, but not likely to be much more than ornamental 
in the eyes of white people. They may be briefly enumerated : 

The "manzanita" (various species of Arctostaphylos, especially A. 
manzanita) the "little apple" of the Spaniards, bears a rather dry but 
sub-acid fruit. 

The "bear berry" (Arctostaphylos uvaursi) is esteemed by the 
Indians both as food and medicine. 

"The western buffalo berry" (Shcpherdia argentia) has small acid 
edible fruits. 

The "salal" (Gaxilthcria shallon), small fruit, either red or purple, 
is also a favorite of the aborigines. 

Of "barberries" we have three species of Bcrbcris. One, aqni- 
folimn, is called the "Oregon grape." chiefly notable for its h;indsome 
bloom, which has been chosen the State flower of Oregon. The fruit 
is dark blue and the root is said to be a febrifuge. Another species 
(nervosa) has a larger fruit which is esteemed in cookery; and a 
third species (pinnata) bears a small, pleasant-flavored fruit. It is 
the Lena am-arilla of the Spanish Californians. 

Our "service berry" {Amclanchicr alni folia) is from a quarter to 
a third of an inch in diameter and of a purple color. 



40 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

The "lemon berry" is a fruit of Rhus integrifolia, and is coated 
with an acid exudation which is said to dissolve in water and make a 
pleasant drink. The fruit of Rhus trilobata is said to have both a 
sweet and an acid coating. 

The berries of the "toyon" or "tollon" {Heteromeles arbutifolia)' 
or "CaHfornia holly," are said to be eaten by Indians, but they serve 
the white people a better purpose in Christmas decorations. 

The "jujubs" of commerce (Zisyphus jujuba) has a local relative 
in Zisyphus parryi, which is, however, dry, and mealy, rather than 
juicy. 

The "beach strawberry," or "sea fig," is the fruit of Mcseinhrian- 
thennmi aequilaterale, a relative of the ice-plant. The good -sized fruit 
is gathered along the seashore, and remotely suggests a stravv-berry. 

Wild Olive (Forestieria Neo-mexicana.) — This is a tall willow- 
like shrub, found in springy places on the borders of the Mojave 
Desert. It also grows in the Salinas Valley. It bears an abundance 
of small fruits which, from their botanical relationship to the olive, have 
attracted some attention. Experiments to determine its standing as a 
possible root for the olive have been suggested. 

Wild Nuts of California. — The wild nuts of California are of 
very little commercial importance. The wild almond {Primus Andcr- 
sonii) of the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevadas is chiefly of botani- 
cal interest, although some experiments are in progress in its use as 
a grafting stock for the sweet almond. The California filbert {Corylus 
Californica) has none of the quality of the improved filberts nor even 
of the wild hazelnut. Our native chestnut, the giant Chinquapin 
(Castanopsis chrysophylla) has a sweet kernel, but a hard shell, almost 
like a hazelnut ; its near relative, Castanopsis scmpervirens or 
Bush Chinquapin of the Sierra Nevada and dry Coast Range, is said 
to have a bitter flavored kernel. The nuts of both of these species are 
very difficult to obtain because the fruit sets sparingly and the squirrels 
harvest the crop early. Our native walnut {Juglans Californica) is 
better in flavor than the Eastern black walnut, but its hard shell makes 
it of little commercial account in competition with better, cultivated 
nuts. The root is widely used as a stock for the English walnut. 

The one native nut which is regularly sold in the local market is the 
"pinenut" — seeds of several species of Pacific Coast pines, particularly 
the "Nevada Nut Pine" or "One-leaf Pinion." Their flavor is somewhat 
resinous, but is agreeable. 

The seeds of two species of palms, IVashingtonia Hiifera and the 
Lower California Erythca armata, are sought for by the Indians, who 
also eat the sweetish fruit of the Yucca Mojavensis, which somewhat re- 
sembles in shape the banana, and in flavor the fig, and is called the 
"wild date." 

The Indians also use the acorns of several species of California 
oaks as food, extracting the bitterness by soaking in water, and then 
making a rude bread of the acorn meal. 

The "jajoba," or "goat-nut" (Simniondsia Californica), is a low 
shrub, the fresh fruits of which, deprived of their seed-coats, are eaten 



CALIFORNIA CACTUS FRUITS 41 

like almonds, and when dried by fire and ground tliey are used as a 
beverage, in the form of tablets made up with sugar, or as a simple 
infusion. Fire-dried seeds contain 48.30 per cent of fatty matter ; the 
oil is suitable for foods and of good quality, and is said not to turn 
rancid. In lower California it is prepared by boiling with water. 

The nuts of the California laurel were roasted by the native tribes 
and esteemed a great delicacy. 

Cactus. — The common cactus (Opimtia Engelmmini) bears a sweet 
edible fruit which the Indians dry in large quantities for winter use. 
By long boiling they make a sauce, which, after slight fermentation, 
they consider especially nutritious and stimulating. The local species 
has been used by Mr. Burbank in crossing to secure improved spineless 
fruits on plants of greater productiveness. 



CHAPTER V 

CALIFORNIA MISSION FRUITS 

Cultivated fruits were first brought into California from the south. 
Mission work among the Indians of Lower California was actually 
begun by the establishment of the mission at Loreto by Salvatierra, 
October 19, 1697. The following years horses and cattle were brought 
from Mexico, and from this introduction came ultimately the vast 
herds which roamed the hills and plains of California. Probably the 
first seeds and plants of cultivated vegetables and fruits came about 
the same time, for there was a small garden and a few fruit trees at 
Loreto in 1701. But Loreto was not fitted for horticulture, and in- the 
same year an expedition in charge of Father Ugarte, who is called the 
founder of agriculture in Lower California, crossed over the mountains 
to a more suitable location at the mission of Vigge Biaundo, which 
had been destroyed some time before by hostile Indians. Ugarte re- 
stored the mission, made irrigating ditches, and planted fruit trees 
and vines. This efifort was successful from a horticultural point of 
view, for in 1707 Ugarte made more wine than would suffice for 
mission use, and sent some to Mexico in exchange for other goods. 
Thus began the export trade in California wine. 

The Jesuits continued their establishment of missions in Lower 
California until there were fifteen missions, at five of which there were 
vineyards, and presumably as many or more which had gardens with 
fruit trees. 

The variety of fruits grown, in Lower California was small. They 
had figs, oranges, citrons, pomegranates, plantains, and some olives 
and dates. There were no North European fruits, with the exception 
of a few peaches, which, however, did not appear to thrive. 

The Jesuits were supplanted in Lower California, in 1768, by the 
Franciscans. The Franciscans, led by Junipero Serra, at once pressed 
northward, and entered the territory which is now the State of Cali- 
fornia. Their first establishment was at San Diego, in 1769. Thence 
they proceeded northward, braving many perils, and undergoing great 
hardships, establishing missions through the coast region of the State. 
Credit is given to the secular head of the expedition to San Diego, 
Don Joseph de Galvez, representing the king of Spain, for ordering 
the carrying of seeds of fruits, grains, vegetables, and flowers into the 
new territory, and from the planting at San Diego the same varieties 
were taken to the twenty missions afterwards established. 

Kinds of Fruit at the Missions. — It is of no little interest to 
ascertain how great a variety of fruits was grown in these mission 
orchards. Vancouver, in 1792, found a fine orchard at Santa Clara, 
with apple, peach, pear, apricot, and fig trees, all thrifty and promising. 

42 



PASSING OF THE MISSION ORCHARDS 43 

He also describes at the mission of San Buena Ventura apples, pears, 
plums, figs, oranges, grapes, and peaches and pomegranates. Robinson 
described the orchards connected with the Mission of San Gabriel as 
very extensive, having among their trees oranges, citrons, limes, apples, 
pears, peaches, pomegranates, and figs. There were also grapes in 
abundance. Edwin Bryant noticed at San Luis Obispo Mission the 
orange, fig, palm, olive, and grape. At the Mission San Jose he found 
an inclosure of fifteen or twenty acres, the whole of which was planted 
with trees and grape-vines. There were six hundred pear trees and a 
large number of apple and peach trees, all bearing fruit in great abun- 
dance and in full perfection. The quality of the pears he found ex- 
cellent, but the apples and peaches indifferent. E. S. Capron, in a 
general enumeration of the fruits grown at the missions, includes 
cherries. 

Early Planting by Others than the Padres. — Though the earlier 
Spanish population had the example of successful horticulture before 
them for half a century at the missions, they did not seem inclined to 
emulate the efforts of the padres upon their own grounds, except in 
occasional instances. General Vallejo planted fruit trees in Sonoma 
Valley as early as 1830, and of his place it is said: "It is an old and 
well-cultivated place, well known in all the northern portions of Cali- 
fornia while this State was still Mexican territory." Exceptions there 
were, also at the south. The old fruit garden on the Camulos Rancho, 
in Ventura county, has become famous. Frcemont, writing of his 
observations in 1846, says that among the arid, brush-covered hills 
south of San Diego he found little valleys converted by a single spring 
into crowded gardens, where pears, peaches, quinces, pomegranates, 
grapes, olives, and other fruits grew luxuriantly together. 

Scarcely had six years elapsed stibsequent to the settlement of the 
pueblo of San Jose on its present site, before the inhabitants were en- 
joying the benefits of luxurious fruits. Before 1805 more was grown 
than could be disposed of in its natural state. 

Decline of the Mission Orchards. — The decline of most of the 
mission orchards and gardens followed the secularization of the es- 
tablishments in 1834. There were a few exceptions, where the mission 
lands fell into enterprising Spanish or American hands. During the 
years of neglect, the more tender trees died, and the more hardy sur- 
vived. The pear and the olive vied with the vine in withstanding 
drouth and the trampling and browsing of the cattle that roamed un- 
molested through the deserted gardens. These pears, as will be de- 
scribed presently, were turned to good account by the early American 
settlers ; the olive and the vine furnished cuttings for most of the 
plantations made during the first twenty years or more of American 
occupation. 

But it seems that not all the mission orchards were permitted to 
fall into decay after secularization. In 18-^6 Bryant fotmd at the 
Mission San Jose two gardens inclosed by high adobe walls. The 
area was from fifteerr to twenty acres, all of which was jilanted with 
fruit trees and vines. There were about six hundred pear trees and 



44 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

a large number of apple aand peach trees, all bearing fruit in great 
abundance, the quality of the pears being excellent, the apples and 
neaches indifferent. Other visitors to some of the mission orchards 
between the events of secularization and American occupation speak 
of being regaled with pears and milk, a dish which seemed to them 
ambrosial after the weary journeys overland across the deserts, or 
after months of ship fare. 

Planting of Mission Fruits by Early Settlers. — There were quite 
considerable plantations, chiefly of mission grapes and oranges, by 
early settlers in the neighborhood of Los Angeles. 'General Bidwell 
saw in Los Angeles in 1845 the largest vineyard that he had seen in 
California, and the vines were the most thrifty. Wine was also 
abundant — even the Angelica. Los Angeles had orchards, also, mostly 
of oranges. The largest orange orchards at that time were those of 
Wolfskin, Carpenter, and Louis Vigne. During recent years the 
modern city of Los Angeles has been built over and beyond them. 

Among the early planters of mission fruits in the northern part of 
the State was Yount, who planted vines in Napa Valley in 1838, and 
other fruits later. John Wolfskill, of Wmters, saw grapes and peaches 
at Yount's in 1841, and J. M. Pleasant took peach pits from Yount's 
over into Pleasant's valley, Solano county in 1851. Dr. Marsh, on 
his place at the base of Mount Diablo, had, in 1842. a mission grape 
vineyard more than an acre in extent, and in good bearing. The vines 
were planted about 1838. Mr. Wolfskill planted a few vines on Putah 
Creek in 1842. 

Pairtial Revival of the Mission Fruit Gardens. — After the incom- 
ing of Americans in 1849 some of the old Mission trees were secured 
by enterprising men, and made to renew their youth by pruning, 
cultivation, and irrigation, that they might minister to the great 
demand for fruit which sprang up among the gold seekers. The trees 
richly reciprocated the care and attention given them, and there still 
exists at the San Gabriel Mission old pear trees grafted over with im- 
proved varieties by W. M. Stockton in 1854. The first fruits offered 
for sale in San Francisco markets were from the pear trees of Santa 
Clara and San Jose Missions, and from the m.ission grapevines of the 
same localities, and of Los Angeles county. These grapes, packed in 
sawdust, came up the coast by steamer, and were then re-shipped to 
the mining camps, arriving for the most part in good condition, and 
were very popular. It is recorded that one thousand five hundred tons 
of these grapes were sent from Los Angeles county to San Francisco 
and the mines in 1852. Another instance in which thrift followed 
neglect is seen in the fact that, in 1858, Don Andres Pico, who suc- 
ceeded to possession of the orchard at the San Fernando Mission, did 
a considerable business in drying pears and other fruits, using the labor 
of the Indians. 

At the present time vestiges of the old mission orchards still remain, 
the pears and olives still bearing, and in some cases the old date palms 
guarding the desolate scenes, or standing as reminders of the old 
regime, while the new life of California is surging up around them. 



SECOND INTRODUCTION OF IMPROVED FRUITS 45 

RUSSIAN FRUITS 

The second introduction of cultivated fruits to California was by 
the Russians. The exact date of their planting at Fort Ross on the 
ocean side in Mendocino county, is not known, but is believed to have 
been as early as 1812. The survivors of the original Russian planting 
look "very old and mossy, and are not very thrifty, but still bear some 
fruit every year." They were planted too closely, and have undergone 
periods of neglect, no doubt. The trees are apple for the most part, 
but there were also cherries, and some of both fruits survive. The 
trees are all believed to have been grown from seed, and if this be true 
some fortunate results were obtained, for there is still grown in Green 
\''alley, Sonoma county, a medium-sized, bell-shaped apple, lightly 
5trii)ed with red, which is called the Fort Ross or Russian apple, and 
was probably propagated by grafts from the Fort Ross orchard. Seeds 
were also secured from this source for propagation of apple trees in 
early days in that section of the State. 



CHAPTER VI 

INTRODUCTION OF NEW VARIETIES 

The first cultivated fruits of old era came to California with 
the padres. The first fruits of the new era came with the American 
pioneers. Though not a little inquiry has been made, it is not yet 
possible to declare definitely who brought the first budded or grafted 
trees upon California soil. It is a tradition in the family of Martin 
Lelong, who came to California as a member of Stevenson's regiment 
in 1846, that he brought with him a small lot of trees of French 
varieties of apples growing in a box, and that they were planted in 
Los Angeles. 

In the fall of 1849, W. H. Nash joined with R. L. Kilburn in 
ordering from a nursery in western New York a small box of thirty- 
six fruit trees, which packed in moss, well survived the journey around 
the Horn, arriving and being planted in Napa Valley in the spring of 
1850. The shipment included Rhode Island Greening, Roxbury Russet, 
Winesap, Red Romanite, Esopus Spitzenburg apples ; Bartlett and 
Seckel pears. Black Tartarian and Napoleon Bigarreau cherries. 

Before this introduction of grafted fruit trees, and, indeed, for 
several years afterwards, there, were many shipments of fruit-tree 
seeds from the eastern States to California. Mr. Barnett planted 
Kentucky seed as early as 1847 in Napa county. T. K. Stewart 
brought to California with him, in 1848, about two hundred pounds of 
vegetable and fruit seeds, the latter including peach, pear and apple, 
all of which were planted on the American River, within the present 
limits of Sacramento, in the spring of 1849. At the same time he 
planted figs and olives, and, in 1851, seeds of oranges. From all these 
he secured bearing trees. 

But these early efforts at improvement of California fruits were 
but faint forerunners of the zeal and enterprise which followed the 
great invasion by gold seekers. As soon as the first thought — to get 
gold directly from the soil — would admit the second — to get it in- 
directly, by agricultural and horticultural arts — ^there came a demand 
for something better than the wild fruits of the mountains, better and 
more abundant than the fruits from the mission orchards. At first 
everything in the line of fruit-tree seed which could be obtained was 
planted. Thus the immediate vicinity of the mines soon began to show 
growing fruit trees. But seedlings of any kind would not satisfy the 
planters, and effort was put forth in every direction after grafted trees 
of the best varieties. Oregon had a few years the start of California 
as an inviting field for immigration and the advantage also of winning 
the attention of those who went out, not as gold seekers, but as agri- 
cultural producers. Oregon had grafted trees in bearing, and nursery 
stock as well, about the time the demand sprang up for it in California. 
Its introduction was then, however, of very recent date. Up to 1847 

46 



FIRST INTRODUCTIONS BY AMERICANS 47 

the cultivated fruit of Oregon consisted of seedlings introduced by the 
Hudson Bay Company, in 1824, and by the early settlers from the 
Mississippi Valley. In that year occurred the first considerable, if not 
the very first, introduction of grafted fruit upon the Pacific coast. 
The story of that venture has been so often wrongly told that it is 
well to record its interesting mcidents in the words of one quite near 
to the event, if not actually participating in it. Seth Lewelling, of 
Milwaukee, Oregon, writes : 

In 1847 my brother, Henderson Lewelling, crossed the plains from Henry 
county, Iowa, to Oregon, bringing with him a pretty general variety of grafted 
fruits. He fitted up a wagon for the purpose, selected small plants, and planted 
them in soil in the boxes and watered them to keep them alive. He told me that 
in some places he had to carry the water a mile up the mountains to save his 
trees. When he arrived in Oregon, late in the fall, he had something over three 
hundred plants alive. The same fall William Meek arrived in Oregon with a few 
varieties of fruit trees. He and my brother put their stock together, and com- 
menced the first nursery of grafted fruits on the Pacific coast. It was situ- 
ated five miles south of Portland, just below Milwaukee, on the east bank of the 
Willamette river. For want of seedling stock, they could not increase their 
nursery much until, in 1850, my brother John and I crossed the plains, bringing 
with us some apple seed, which we planted that winter. We also found a gentle- 
man named Pugh, in Washington county, Oregon, who had planted some apple 
seed in the spring of 1850, which had grown well, and we bought his stock. 
During the winter of 1850-51 we put in aijout twenty thousand grafts. In March, 
1851, I went to Sacramento, taking with me a box of grafts of apple, pear, peach, 
plum and cherry, and sold them in Sacramento. I believe I have the honor of 
being the first to distribute grafted fruit in California. 

Other Early Introductions. — The introduction of grafted trees, 
for sale by Mr. Lewelling in the spring of 1851, was quickly followed 
by other commercial importations, and by shipments "by planters 
for their own use, so that the plantings of 1851-52 were quite large. 
Still there was great doubt as to the success of the trees. The late 
G. G. Briggs, after his great melon profits of 1851, went back to New 
York State for his family, and, returning to California, brought with 
him, as he says, "with no idea that they would succeed, but as a 
reminder of home," fifty peach and a few apple and pear trees. To 
his surprise, the trees grew well in 1852, and the next year blossomed 
and bore some of the best peaches he ever saw. The pears also bore 
some fine fruit the saine year. 

Besides the introduction of grafted trees which have been inen- 
tioned, there were others in 1852, for, at a fair held in San Francisco 
in 1853, there were several kinds of apples, grown by Isaac A. Morgan, 
of Bolinas, on trees planted the previous year. Apples were also shown 
from Napa. David Spence, of Monterey, showed the first almonds 
grown in California. During the winter of 1852-53 the distribution 
of grafted trees must have extended widely over the State. Five 
dollars for a small tree was frequently paid at the nursery of Meek 
and Lewelling, in Milwaukee, Oregon, and the trees were carried 
overland into the mining districts of California, as well as brought to 
San Francisco for distribution through the valleys. 

Fruit Gardens, not Orchards. — It is interesting to note that 
much of the pioneer effort was expended upon fruit gardens rather 



48 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

than fruit orchards. Two ideas, at least, led in this direction. One 
was the popular thought, which, however, was very early found to be 
erroneous, that frequent and copious irrigation was essential to the 
growth of fruit in this dry climate. Another was the ambition, which 
was correct, both from a horticultural and commercial point of view, 
to secure the fruit just as soon as possible, for the double purpose of 
determining what was adapted to the novel conditions, and to secure 
the magnificent prices which fruit commanded in the market. For 
these ends dwarfing stocks naturally suggested themselves, and were 
employed to an extent which seems wonderful when it is 
remembered that now hardly a fruit tree in the State is worked upon 
a dwarfing stock. Very early, say from '52 to '58, at San Jose, Oak- 
land, Stockton and Sacramento, small areas, which would now only be 
considered respectable house lots, were turned to great profit with 
dwarf pear and apple trees. The place of Mr. Fountain, near Oakland, 
was .called, in 1857, "The finest orchard of dwarf trees in the State." It 
consisted of three acres set with one thousand six hundred apple and 
pear trees, all dwarf from root grafts, two years old, and four feet 
high, and most of them in good bearing. He started the branches from 
the ground, pruning severely, and heading in during the winter. He 
claimed that dwarfing gave him better and larger fruit, and from two 
to three years sooner than with standard trees. He did not irrigate, 
but plowed frequently, four inches deep, up to the first of June. 

But though these dwarf-tree gardens were formally declared "to 
be the fashion," and though the list of stock of one Sacramento 
nurseryman, in 1858, included ninety-five standard and eight thousand 
and sixty-eight dwarf pear trees for sale, the foundations of the greater 
orchards were early laid upon the basis of standard trees. Thus the 
Briggs' orchard, of one thousand acres on the moist land of the Yuba, 
was planted with trees sixteen feet apart each way, and Mr. Lewelling, 
and other earlv planters on the rich lands of central Alameda county, 
adopted about the same distance. 

Quite in contrast, too, with the prevalence of dwarf trees, and 
contemporaneous with it, was the grand plan upon which the pioneer 
of pioneers, General Sutter, laid out his orchard on Hock Farm, on 
the west bank of the Feather River, eight miles from, its junction with 
the Yuba, of which the following description was written about the 
time the trees were coming into bearing: 

Several acres were set apart for an ornamental fruit orchard, the trees and 
shrubs being so arranged as to present a unique landscape garden, nearly every 
article in which is productive of fruit. The arrangement of the fruit trees is 
peculiar, a large portion of them being set on either side of the broad avenues 
opening through the extensive grounds in various directions, imparting to the 
whole an air of picturesque beauty seldom seen. 

But neither the narrow dwarf-tree garden plan nor the broad 
landscape-garden plan has survived. Neither of them harmonized 
with the commercial idea of orcharding — large production and 
economy of cultivation, and both are now but curiosities of the early 
horticulture of California. 



PIONEER METHODS IN CALIFORNIA 49 

Irrigation Abandoned. — The early abandonment of dwarf trees 
suggests also the early abandonment of irrigation in the valleys of 
Northern California — as early as 1856. Facilities which had been 
secured for irrigation of orchards were allowed to go unused, because 
it was thought better not to use them. One case is reported in Napa 
county where means to furnish the orchard with thirty thousand 
gallons of water per day were allowed to lie idle. The substitution 
of cultivation for water, of course, attended this reform. The an- 
nouncement of a practice, in 1856, "to plow deep, dig wide and deep 
holes for planting, and work the ground from February to July, allow- 
ing no grass or weeds to grow among the trees," shows that the 
thorough and clean culture, for which California is famous, is not a 
recent idea in our practice. Even the abandonment of the plow, and 
almost weekly use of the cultivator, was the practice of some growers 
in the San Jose district before 1860. In fact, the descriptions of 
orchard management in that day include nearly the whole variety of 
methods which now prevail. Later experience has, however, shown 
that irrigation facilities are more valuable even for deciduous fruits 
than was once thought possible. This proposition will be discussed 
in the chapter on irrigation. 

Early Wisdom and Enterprise. — It is evident to anyone who 
studies the records, that California was very fortunate in numbering 
among the early settlers so many men with horticultural tastes, skill, 
and experience. The rapidity with which fruit trees were multiplied, 
and the confidence with which these early comers entered upon the 
nursery business, shows their training. Although there were many 
trees brought here from the East and from Europe, they constituted 
only a very small percentage of the plantings of the first few years, 
but the orchards, with the exception of a very small number of trees 
introduced to furnish grafting and budding stock, were the product 
of the soil. When this is borne in mind, it becomes all the more 
wonderful how so much could be done in a new country, in a distant 
part of the world, in so very short a time. It was an observation which 
was put upon record as early as 1856, that "some varieties of fruit 
are much improved by change to this State, and some are not bene- 
fited." The test seems to have been that if a variety was not better 
than at the East, it should be discarded. 

The First Oversupply. — The wonderful stimulus given to the 
fruit interest by the results obtained in growth and in marketing, 
soon induced larger plantings than the demand warranted. In 1857 
it was publicly stated that "there are single farms in this State, con- 
taining each over half a million fruit trees in orchard and nursery — 
one person owning enough trees, when fully matured, to produce as 
much fruit, other than grapes, as will be sold this year throughout our 
State. The day is not far distant when fruit will be an important crop 
for raising and fattening swine." This was, to a certain extent, a 
statement of a croaker, for plantations continued, rare varieties were 
brought from the East, the South, and from Europe ; the growth of 
some fruits continued to be very profitable and the nursery business, 



50 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

confined to fewer hands, was profitable also. The idea that quality 
rather than size should be striven for, led to more discrimination in 
propagation and better treatment of trees. 

The decade from 1858 to 1868 was one of quiet in the fruit interest 
of California. Many of the too hastily and carelessly planted trees 
died from lack of proper cultivation and pruning, and the borer 
wrought sad havoc. In 1860 and 1861 there was serious depression. 
It is recorded that peaches were worth but one cent a pound, and 
many were allowed to go to waste as not worth gathering. The flood 
of 1862 destroyed many trees along the Sacramento River, and replant- 
ing was slow until prices began to improve, as they did soon afterward. 
The rapid development of the mining interest in Nevada, and the 
construction of roads across the Sierras, opened the way for the dis- 
position of much fruit growth in the foothills and in the region around 
Sacramento. 

The imports of dried and canned fruits were large, and growers 
were exhorted to take steps to secure this trade for themselves. Some- 
thing was done in this direction, for by 1867 the local product of 
canned fruit was equal to the demand. Drying did not advance so 
fast ; for two years later there were imports of six thousand barrels 
of dried apples, while the hundreds of thousands of bushels of the fruit 
were rotting under the trees in our orchards. 

The decade under review was also notable for the first appearance 
of cured raisins and prunes at the State Fair of 1863. The raisins 
were from the Muscat of Alexandria grape, and the report states that 
so-called raisins exhibited previous to that time were merely dried 
grapes. Dr. J. Strentzel, of Martinez, was the first exhibitor of Muscat 
raisins, and he exhibited also dried grapes of four varieties to show 
the contrast between a raisin and a dried grape. J. R. Nickerson, of 
Placer county, exhibited the dried prunes, which were of the German 
variety. 

Though this decade was one of uncertainty and doubt, there were 
rich lessons of experience learned, and the foundations for coming 
greatness were well laid. Many of our leading lines of production 
trace their beginnings to this period, and their later developments have 
been beyond any anticipations then cherished. 

The New Era. — Another era in California may be marked as 
beginning with the year 1869, because then the first fresh fruits were 
sent East over the newly-opened overland line. The first season's 
shipments amounted to thirty-three tons of pears, apples, grapes, and 
plums ; in 1870 seventy carloads, or about seven hundred tons, were 
sent. 

The Eastern shipment of fresh fruits began its new era with the 
year 1886, when the first full train load of fifteen cars of fresh fruit 
from deciduous trees went overland. Shipping train loads of oranges 
from Southern California began at an earlier date. 

During the present decade shipments of fruit and fruit-products 
have increased until a very large aggregate in weight and value has 



CALIFORNIA FRUIT SHIPMENTS 



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52 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

been attained. The volume of shipments beyond State lines is shown 
by the statement on the next page compiled from the records of the 
California Development Board. 

A full statement of citrus fruit production and shipment will be 
found in Chapter XXXII. 

The Fruit Interest of 1914. — The fruit interests of California 
now constitute the greatest single industry of California, and the fruit 
output of California is far greater than that of any other State in the 
Union. Notable progress has been secured in planting, in the growth, 
preparation and marketing of the product, in the contest with injurious 
insects and plant diseases, and, in fact, in all things which contribute 
to success. It is true that there are problems still unsolved, and there 
have been grievous losses to individuals who have proceeded upon 
too great expectations or have erred in location for various fruits. 
Such mishaps will be less frequent in the future. At present there is 
a disposition to proceed more cautiously and to profit by the lessons 
which have been learned, many of which will be mentioned in their 
proper places in later chapters. 

Some dimensions of the present fruit interests may be suggested 
by the following statistics showing numbers of trees and vines, which 
have been carefully compiled from reports of the assessors of the 
counties submitted to the State Board of Equalization. As the enumer- 
ations were made as a basis of taxation they are not likely to be 
exaggerated. Though imperfect, they are the best available. 

Number and Acreage of Fruit Trees and Vines in California, 1912. 

Fruit. Bearing. Non-bearing. Total. Acreage. 

Apple 2,352,811 1,523,598 3.876,409 51,684 

Apricot 2,877.593 493,141 3,370,734 44,944 

Cherry 505,123 231,087 736,210 8,180 

Pear 1,398,741 620,344 2,019,085 25,238 

Peach 8,341,036 2,104.707 10,445,744 04.459 

Nectarine 58,034 5,739 62,j72, 637 

Pluui 1.178,436 317,960 1,4%,396 14.964 

Prune 7,920,799 1,123,854 9,044,653 90.441 

Quince 20,381 3,324 23,705 220 

Fig 330,364 219,511 549,875 21,995 

Olive 1,056,167 173,431 1,229,598 19.951 

Lemon 1,815,401 1.471,440 3,286,841 43,979 

Orange 9,022,538 4,146,051 13,168,589 146.317 

Almond 1,384,933 678.512 2,063,445 27.512 

Walnut 786,082 839,990 1,626,072 40.652 

Grapes, acres 263,800 82.873 346,673 

Berries, acres 12,658 2,019 14.677 

Totals *39,324.897 *14,037,582 53,001.129 1,002,523 

*Acreage of grapes, acres and berries omitted. 

It is interesting to estimate the total value of the annual products 
of California trees and vines, using the best data and judgment avail- 
able. 



iCind of fruit. 


Rank among states. 


Almond 


First 


Apple 


Ninth 


Apricot 


First 


Cherry 


First 


Fig 


First 


Grape 


First 


Lemon 


First 


Olive 


First 


Orange 


First 


Peach 


First 


Pear 


First 


Plum and prune 


First 


Walnut, English 


First 


Berries 


Third 


Total value* 


First 



California's place in fruit growing 53 

Rank of California in the United States in the Production of Fruits — From 

the Last U. S. Census. 

Value of product 1909. 
$ 700,304 

2,901,622 

2,768,921 

951,624 

260,153 

10,846,812 

2,976,571 

401,277 

12,951,505 

8,563,427 

1,660,963 

5,473,539 

2,247,193 

1,789.214 

50,704,834 

'Including minor fruits not listed. 

Thus it appears that California leads the other states in every fruit 
except two. California also lead.s in the total value of all fruits pro- 
duced in all states — producing in fact about one-fourth of all the fruit 
grown in the United States. 

Four crops have been gathered since the census year, 1909, and the 
California fruit interests have notably advanced. Including this in- 
crease and using the commercial value of the fruits as they reach the 
markets instead of "farm value" which the census gives, a total value 
of these products in 1914 is estimated to be about one hundred millions 
of dollars. 

INFLUENCE OF THE FRUIT INDUSTRIES UPON 
CALIFORNIA DEVELOPMENT 

Enlistment in California fruit growing has proved exceedingly 
satisfactory to tens of thousands of people in the various ways along 
which they have approached it. The fruit districts are full of cottage 
homes sheltering families of those who have begun with small invest- 
ments and have made a good livelihood, and often considerably more, 
from a few acres of fruits grown largely without expenditure for 
hired labor. The study of the needs of the tree or vine and ministering 
to them by personal eflfort has brought new health and new incentive 
to the worn and weary who have taken up outdoor life and activity in 
California fruit growing with a wise choice of location, land and fruits, 
for obviously in all investments one must be wise as well as willing. 

In large operations hundreds have notably succeeded by purchasing 
good land in large tracts at low rates and making ample investment 
for its development and improvement. Some of the most delightful of 
our towns and villages have arisen as a direct result of such employment 
of capital. Well established communities, well churched and schooled, 
well provided for in local trade and transportation, have followed 
investment and devoted effort in colony enterprises. 



54 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Hundreds, also, have purchased large tracts of wild land and have 
developed fine estates for their own personal gratification, with thriving 
orchards of all kinds of fruits, rich pastures tenanted with improved 
livestock, parks, gradens and buildings comparable with the estates 
of the European nobility, except that California conditions favor free- 
dom and variety in outdoor effort unknown in Europe, and command 
proportional interest and enthusiasm. Estates for winter residences in 
California are exceptionally desirable, not only because of natural 
advantages and greater possibilities of development, but because of the 
advanced standing of the State financially and socially. 

All of these lines of effort, then — home-making in a small way, 
colony enterprise and private estate development — have yielded on the 
whole great satisfaction and success. Fruit growing has been the 
central idea in nearly all of them, but it is obvious that activity in any 
productive line begets opportunity for other lines, and so all branches of 
agriculture have advanced and the diversification is highly desirable. 
Opportunities in manufacture, trade and professional effort of all kinds 
have been quickly seized and developed with much originality and 
success. Fruit growing has created them all and has in turn been 
advanced by all, for every accumulation of capital promotes it. Success- 
ful toilers in all lines become planters. The ancestral delight of the 
race, to sit beneath one's own vine or fig tree, is nowhere more enthu- 
siastically manifested than in California, and nowhere else does the 
emotion of comfort in ownership yield such profound and protracted 
satisfaction. 

THE OUTLOOK OF THE INDUSTRY 

The outlook for California fruits and fruit products involves con- 
siderations of much economic interest. Though the volume is already 
large and there may be experienced now and then temporary dullness 
or depression in this line or that, the business is on the whole brisk 
and profitable. There is such a wide range in the fruits grown and the 
products made from them, and such changes in local conditions in the 
many purchasing States and foreign countries with which Calif ornians 
deal, that there must be some fluctuations in the values of some of 
the supplies offered in distant market. The result is that first one fruit 
and then another one seems to be more or less profitable. The fact, 
however, that all are increasing in volume and the total traffic brings 
each year more money to the State, is a demonstration of the standing 
of the collective output. Each year new markets are found, both at 
home and abroad, and the capacity of old centers of distribution is 
shown to be greater than anticipated. There is every reason to expect 
that the products can be profitably multiplied. There have been secured, 
largely through co-operative efforts of growers, so many improvements 
in handling and transportation that distant shipment has become more 
safe and profitable and distribution far wider. It is reasonable to be- 
lieve that further improvement in movement and reduction of cost 
will be realized and the per capita consumption in the populous parts 
of our own country proportionally advanced. In spite of all that 
wintry States can do for local supplies, California can find open mar- 



OUTLOOK OF FRUIT GROWING IN CALIFORNIA 55 

kets before and after the short ripening season of the Eastern States 
for her early and late fruits, and can use her own midseason fruits in 
the drying^ and canning industries, though it is a fact that in the height 
of the Eastern fruit season a considerable quantity of California fruit 
will command the highest prices because of its exceptional size, beauty 
and keeping qualities. The citrus fruits, so long as they are allowed 
to remain under the favoring tariff which now exists, will continue to 
supply an American product of exceptional quality and freshness, while 
prunes, nuts, raisins and wines will not only do this, but will push 
forward into the trade of Europe, as they are now beginning to do in 
a most vigorous manner. A very significant report was made by one 
of the United States Consuls in France recently that our canned and 
dried fruits were appearing on the shelves of all the provision shops of 
the smaller French towns and were being freely sold without reducing 
the prices of the locally grown fruit. Practically the same thing could 
be said of points in Germany and other European countries. The fact 
is that European countries can not grow fruit enough to supply their 
own people and fruit has been largely a luxury. California dried fruits 
are being welcomed by the great middle classes and are likely to become 
a staple of their diet. This explains the ultimate disposition of the 
large amounts now going direct from California to Europe. 

California's exports of high-class food supplies to European coun- 
tries are likely to reach values like those of the wheat and barley which 
we are now sending to that part of the world. The development of 
adjacent territory on the American continent and other Pacific countries 
may shape the future of California as a fruit producing State in a way 
which can at present only be dreamed about. It should be remembered 
that California has a unique character from a horticultural point of 
view. Not only does the State have a monopoly of semi-tropical condi- 
tions of the United States (excepting small parts of the Gulf States 
and Arizona), but California has command of the whole of northwest 
America and the whole of northeast Asia, not only in the supply of 
semi-tropical fruits, but in early ripening of hardy fruits as well. 

California does not grow tropical fruits, as has already been con- 
ceded in Chapter I. They must come from the islands and the tropical 
south coast countries. Semi-tropical fruits are. however, vastly more 
important in commerce than tropical, and a region which successfully 
combines northern orchard fruits with the whole semi-tropical class 
commands the fruit trade of all accessible populous regions which have 
limited fruit capabilities. There are now four such regions with the 
kind of population which makes for industrial advancement — Southern 
Europe, South Africa, parts of Australia and California. As already 
shown, we are competing successfully with South Europe in the capa- 
cious markets of North Europe. South Africa and Australia are unfor- 
tunate in lying in the southern hemisphere, which is mostly ocean 
wastes, and they are handicapped by tropic crossing in their northern 
shipments, although the fact of opposite seasons may help them, and 
also us, in avoiding competition of trade which both desire. California 
will soon be less than half as far by sea from European and Atlantic 
coast ports as at present, but California in the future will have less 



56 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

occasion for such distant recourses. Prophets, far-seeing in world 
courses, declare that the Pacific ocean is to be the arena for commerce 
greater than the world has yet seen, and the Pacific coast countries 
are to contain the greater part of the world's population. This greatest 
quartosphere with its superlative opportunities and activities will have 
California as its treasure house of fruits and fruit products. During 
the long winter the citrus fruits will afford tonic and refreshment, 
and before hardy fruits bloom in northern climes the same fruits will 
appear from the early ripening districts of California. In this traffic 
California will not only be practically without a competitor, but, 
sitting beside the sea, there will also be every advantage of water 
transportation and the sustaining ocean temperatures of the fruits in 
transit. California dried and canned fruits will render acceptable diet 
even though the most Arctic stretches along which development may 
advance in North America and North Asia, while a succession of fresh 
fruits will flow to all Pacific ports throughout the year. California, 
too, will be the winter residence for all the North Pacific millionaires 
and the haven of rest and recuperation for all who are worn by Arctic 
cold or tropic heat throughout the great circle of the Pacific ocean. 
Here the arts will flourish, education attain its highest achievements 
and culture prevail. Then fruit growing both as a commercial enter- 
prise and as a home delight will attain value, volume and perfection, 
of which present achievements are but a faint foreshadowing. 



PART TWO: CULTURAL 



CHAPTER VII 



CLEARING LAND FOR FRUIT 

The greater part of the orchard and vineyard area of this State was 
naturally almost clear for planting-. The removal of large trees, which 
paid the cost of the work in firewood, or the grubbing out of willows 
on some especially rich bottom land, was about the extent of clearing 
which our earlier planters had to undertake, and many of them perhaps 
never had to lift an axe. Still there has always been some clearing 
done, here and there, even since the earliest days, especially upon 
hill lands, the peculiar value of which for some fruits is generally 
recognized. 

The lands which need clearing are in the main foothill slopes of the 
Coast Range and the Sierra Nevada. In the south there is besides, 
sometimes, the debris of the desert flora to clear away when water is 
secured and the rich wilderness is subdued. This work is, however, 
so easily accomplished that it hardly rises to the dignity of "clearing," 
as understood by the Eastern mind. 

It is not possible in this connection to enumerate all of the great 
variety of shrubs and trees which the settler lays low in his clearing. 
The grand trees which figure most largely in lumbering operations are 
not met with as a rule in footliill clearings. The trees which the 
settler encounters are rather the degraded valley growths, which, though 
assuming grand proportions in the valleys, become "scrubs" amid the 
harsher environment of the hillsides. This is notably true of the oaks 
and some other trees. 

Chamisal and Chaparral. — Of true shrubs to be removed, it will 
only be possible to name a few of the most abunant. The common man- 
zanita (Arctostaphylos niancaiiita) occurs on dry ridges everywhere, 
both on the coast and at great elevations, sometimes only growing a 
few inches from the ground, sometimes rising eight or ten feet. Next 
to this, perhaps, the two terms which the land clearer has most to use 
are "chai)arrar' and "chamisal." To distinguish between them it may 
be said, however, that the term chamisal properly applies to the shrub 
Adoiostoma fasciculatum var. obtiisifoliuw, which is abundant on 
dry soils in the Coast Ranges and more rarely in the foothills of the 
Sierra Nevada, often covering extensive areas with dense and almost 
impenetrable growth, producing an effect on the landscaj^e like that 
of the heaths of the Old World. Another species, A. sparsifolinm, with 
narrow, scattered leaves, is sometimes abundant on the mountains east 
of San Diego. 

By chaparral is generally meant shrubs of several species of 
Ceanothus, forming dense thickets and giving its name to certain soils 
on which it most abounds, both in the Sierra foothills and the hillsides 

57 



58 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

of the Coast Range, where it is known as California hlac. The genus 
includes the "flat brushes," as they are called, from their trailing on 
the ground, or low, horizontal shoots ; also the "white thorn" of more 
upright growth. 

Other Small Growths. — Shrubs of frequent occurrence also are 
the poison oak (Rhus diversiloba) , chiefly on the north sides of hills 
in all parts of the State, but most abundant in the Coast Ranges, and 
other species of Rhus which are not poisonous ; the hazel nut (Corylus 
rostraia), which has been mentioned in the chapter on wild fruits ; the 
buckthorns, several species of rhamnus, well distributed on the hillsides 
and mountains of the State. 

In some parts of the State there are also large areas of sagebrush 
or wormwood make up of several species of Artemisia, sage or chia, 
two species of Salvia, and the famous white and black sages of the 
bee-keepers, which are species of Audihertia, occurring chiefly on the 
mountains of Southern California. Add to these the spireas, the 
azaleas, the rhododendrons, the sweet-scented shrubs (Calycanthus), 
etc., and include nearly all the wild fruit trees, brushes and vines men- 
tioned in a previous chapter, and one will gain the idea that though 
California is widely considered a bare State, the land clearer has a host 
of plants confronting him and disputing his right to the soil. 

Cost of Clearing. — The cost of clearing on the foothill slopes 
of the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Ranges is too variable to admit of 
estimates except such as may be made on the spot by experienced 
persons. The cost varies, of course, according to the density of the 
growth of trees and underbrush, and the rate of wages to be paid. 
Though in some cases higher cost is reached, probably as a rule the 
expense of clearing will be from $5.00 to $30.00 per acre, less whatever 
the firewood might be worth. In exceptional cases, where there is a 
large growth and a good wood market near by, the wood may pay 
the expense or more ; even the roots of chaparral sometimes sell in our 
cities at $3.00 or $4.00 per cord. It sometimes happens that charcoal 
can be produced to advantage ; in fact, there are now orchards upon 
land which was secured in the first instance for the charcoal to be 
made upon it. Usually, however, the clearing is an item of expense 
and must be reduced as much as possible by working in the most 
economical and effective way. 

Though in most cases of clearing by the actual settler himself the 
problem is merely one of muscle and persistence, some few hints may 
be given from the experience of others which may be useful. Spare 
time during the summer and fall can often be used to advantage with 
a sharp axe in trimming up the smaller trees, which are large enough 
to yield fencing material, and getting out posts from the redwoods 
and oaks, and rails and pickets from the pines. By thus using the 
waste material the settler can often get out enough fencing material 
to inclose his land and thus save considerable expense. Brush, too, 
which can not be made use of, can be lopped off — in short, all the sharp 
axe work can be done in a dry time. The actual clearing, however, 
should be done in winter, when the ground is wet and soft, and digging 
is easy or "snaking out" is possible. 



METHODS OF REMOVING TREES 59 

Partial and Thorough Clearings. — Orchards are planted on both 
partially and thoroughly cleared land. By the former practice clearing 
enough is done to give space for the tree holes, the debris is burned up, 
and the trees planted. In this kind of work the stumps are left to be 
taken out at a convenient season, the object being to get fruit trees 
to growing as soon as possible. Where one is working with little more 
than his own muscle, and lias no capital, this sort of planting is better, 
perhaps, than not planting at all, but it must be borne in mind that all 
subsequent work will be done at a great disadvantage, and as cultiva- 
tion is likely to be very imperfect, it would be a question whether in 
the end anything would be gained by such a plan. The encumbered 
character of the ground will, of course, prevent the use of the horse 
in cultivation until most of the stumps are removed. Aside from this 
decaying stumps and roots in the soil often kill the young trees ; espe- 
cially is this the case with old oak stumps. 

Clearing land for orchard or vineyard is a very different thing from 
clearing for pasture, as is done in the redwood region of the northwest 
Coast Ranges of the State, where the stumps are untouched ; the trees 
not taken by the lumberman are girdled and left a prey to decay and 
storms, and the brush slashed and burned every few" years to prevent 
it from completely taking possession of the land. Clearing for fruit 
should be thorough, everything which will interfere with good cultiva- 
tion removed ; roots grubbed so that as little shooting up as possible 
is secured ; the ground evened up to obviate standing water, and, where 
needed, arrangements made for irrigation and drainage, as will be 
considered later. 

Removal of Trees. — The first operation in clearing will be the 
removal of the trees. This can be partly done in the dry season if one 
has unemployed time. In such case the tree is felled and worked up 
into fire-wood and the stump left for subsequent treatment when th-; 
ground is moist. Unless there is idle time to employ, the whole work 
can, however, be better done in the winter, for then the top of the tree 
may be made to help pull out its own roots. This done sometimes by 
digging out the soil and cutting oflf the main lateral roots below the 
depth to which the plow will reach. By thus reducing its anchorage 
the tree will topple over, or may be pulled over with a team and tackle, 
and it will usually lift out its stump quite effectively. 

A Steam Puller. — An arrangement for tearing out trees without 
digging has been used to some extent in Santa Cruz county, which is 
said to handle redwood trees up to four feet in diameter successfully, 
it consists of a portable engine and a "puller," which is a windlass 
operated by steam, from which a wire cable is carried to the tree which 
is to be pulled down. A strong chain is put around the tree at a dis- 
tance above the grounrl proportioned to its diameter in such a way as to 
give necessary leverage. The immensely strong hook at the end of 
the cable is attached to this chain and the cable is slowly wound upon 
the reel. The coil begins to grow taut, a dull creak and strain are 
heard as the roots begin to be torn from the earth. Two chains are 
used, a second tree being prepared while the first is falling, that no time 
may be lost. The cable is detached from the falling tree, and a horse 



60 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

draws it from amid the debris of fallen foliage to the next victim. 
The extraction of roots by this method of pulling is said to be very 
complete, and the earth is loosened to a considerable depth. 

Powerful traction engines, manufactured for hauling combined 
harvesters and steam plows, have also been very successfully used for 
the removal of large trees in land clearing. 

Horse-Power Stump Pullers. — The use of horse-power devices 
for tree felling and stump extraction has increased considerably of late. 
The one which has achieved good results is a local invention called a 
"California Stump Puller." It is simply a specially designed capstan 
worked by one horse, with a wire cable five-eighths of an inch in diame- 
ter, an improved snatch lock, chains, and a drafthook to unite the 
cable with the chains. Power is applied to the capstan with a sweep. 
It is calculated that with this device, properly adjusted, one horse is 
enabled to produce an efifect equal to the capacity of 60 horses without 
it, and that a 1,200-pound horse which can move a dead weight of one 
and a half tons for a short distance can move a dead weight of 90 tons 
with the devices employed in the machine : It is so rapidly adjustable 
that on one trial in Napa county eighteen stumps were pulled in 
eighteen minutes, long roots coming clear out of the ground with 
each stump. 

The Use of Powder. — Another means for the removal both of 
stumps and of growing trees which has come into quite wide use during 
the last few years, is high explosives, which have vastly cheapened the 
clearing of lands, where either large trees or stumps have to be 
removed. Full instructions for the use of powder are furnished by 
the agents in San Francisco, and they often send an expert to start the 
work and give instruction if there is much to be done. It has been 
estimated that the cost of handling trees and stumps with explosives 
is less than one-fifth that by hand grubbing, and the ratio of saving 
increases as the trees are larger, as powder is cheaper than muscle. 

Removing Shrubs and Brush. — In the case of removing shrubs 
of a somewhat tall growth, the top is made to help out the roots. This 
is done either with a good strong rope or a chain. To do this requires 
two men and a pair of horses, and two chains, each ten or twelve feet 
long. A chain should be placed around the bush some distance above 
the ground, to give leverage. If the bush is not removed at the first 
pull, start the horses in the opposite direction. While the driver is 
unfastening the chain from the chapparral, the second man can place 
the other chain around another bush, and the one who gets through 
his work first should at once assist the other. In this way the horses 
are kept in constant employment, and neither of the men need lose a 
moment's time. This work should be done when the ground is thor- 
oughly wet. 

Another rig to snake brush and small trees is contrived in this way : 
Use single and double block or shives with 1-in. diameter rope. On 
the block you pull from (the double block) use two 10- ft. chains with 
ring in one end and hook on other. Secure this to a good anchor 
bush or to three or five of them, enough to hold. Fasten them right 



TIIK USE OF CLEARING PRODUCTS 61 

down close to the g^round so there is no leverage on them. As soon as 
you have pulled all you can reach in a circle around the anchor trees, 
take one anchor chain off. or start with one anchor chain, then hook 
on other, take in big circle on single block end. One to four chains can 
be used ; take two half hitches as high as possible, make first chain 
taut ; 2nd chain 2 ft. slack ; 3rd chain 3 ft. slack, and so on — so your 
horses are pulling one bush at a time. Chains do not tie in hard knots 
when horses are pulling on them, as ropes do. 

A Vine Puller. — What is called a "vine puller," because it is 
used to clear off old vineyard, is also available for shrub pulling. Use 
two wagan wheels, long pole 4x6x12 pine with large strong iron hook 
on one end. Bolt the hook on, allow the end with the hook on to project 
over the axle 18 in. Bolt the pole down to axle. This gives you great 
leverage. Roll right along on tiie short end over the axle. Use a good 
five-eighths chain. Take double half-hitch around bush ; raise the pole 
into air, take a short tie on the bush ; start the horse and out comes 
the bush. 

Roller and Plow. — Where manzanita grows upright, as on hills 
north of the bay. tlic same methods of extraction can be employed with 
it, first slashing off enough to allow adjusting the rope or chain a 
few feet above the ground. Where it grows lower, as, for example, on 
the hills of Santa Clara, the manzanita brush is gone over with a 
roller so as to break it down, and then the land is burned over. The 
roller should be rigged with a tiller (header fashion) so that the horses 
can push the roller and walk over the flattened brush. The only object 
of the rolling is to smash the brush down so that it will burn readily. 
When the brush is got rid of in this way, the plow is trusted to get 
rid of the roots. The plow should be of the pattern known as "prairie 
breaker," without coulter. Horses should be shod with a plate of sheet 
iron between the shoe and hoof to prevent snagging, and not less 
than four of them used. Much of the Santa Clara county vine belt 
was cleared in that way. Of course this method only answers for the 
lighter-rooted growths ; tough-rooted chaparral, oak, holly, etc., must 
be grubbed out, unless the roots are snaked out by the tops, as has 
been described. 

Marketable Products of Clearing. — Whether any money can be 
made from the results of clearing depends altogether upon local mar- 
kets for wood and charcoal, and the cost of transportation to them. 
From clearings near large towns enough can be sometimes had to pay 
for the work and hauling, and along railways wood can often be 
shipped with profit. This can only be learned by local inquiries. 

Charcoal Burning. — Charcoal can usually be sold to advantage, 
and wood can sometimes be profitably disposed of in this way when it 
cannot be marketed for fuel. A considerable acreage of unprofitable 
fruit trees has been disposed of in this way recently. Charcoal is made 
from most kinds of wood, and sometimes stumps and large roots are 
charred. A simple process of charcoal burning is given by an expe- 
rienced burner, as follows: 

To burn a pit of charcoal, the prime necessity is to perform the process of 
combustion with the least possible contact with air. Select a suitable place not 



62 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

too far from the dwelling, because the operation must be watched from time to 
time by night as well as by day. It is not necessary to dig much of a "pit" in 
the ground. Choose hard limbs of pine, spruce or whatever wood is' most avail- 
able of that kind. Dry, dead limbs, if not decayed, take for choice. Set them up 
wigwam fashion, close together, fitting them as well as they will allow, the apex 
forming the chimney. Be careful to keep the chimney free, because the fire 
should be there applied to brisk "kindling" as far down as possible. Build round 
and round, taking the precaution to lay three or four straight pieces, three or 
four inches in diameter, along the ground from the outside to the center. These 
may have to be withdrawn to promote the draught. 

The wood all being in place it is now required to cover it thoroughly. In the 
absence of turf or sods, it must be thatched with leafy green boughs, or anything 
that will prevent the earth or dirt that is now heaped on from running through. 
Pack this soil covering carefully, exclude air as far as possible, except when the 
port-holes referred to near the ground are needed. The direction of the wind 
will determine which ones are to be opened. When the fire — after a few hours, 
more or less, according to the materials — has got a good hold, close also the 
chimney. Visit the pit regularly night and day ; lessen or increase the draught 
as may seem needed ; and in a week or ten days the two or three cords of wood 
should be turned into good hard coal. When uncovered, water or dirt should be 
thrown upon coal that is too lively when spread out on the ground. 

Cutting to Kill Brush. — Just when to cut to kill depends upon 
the character of the growth and of the season. One conclusion seems 
to be that with deciduous growths the best time to cut is when they 
have just made their most vigorous growth, and this is in the summer 
— but the month to be chosen for the work will depend upon the loca- 
tion, though August is generally selected as the best time. 

In the case of evergreens, the cutting should be just before the cold- 
est weather, in which they are the nearest dormant. Evergreens, 
however, dififer much in tenacity of life, for while most kinds are easily 
killed, the California redwood will endure almost any abuse with the 
axe or fire and still spring up repeatedly and persistently for years. 

The Use of Sheep and Goats on Sprouts. — On sprouting brush, 
there is, perhaps, no cheaper or more effective means of repression than 
sheep and goats. They are used after the top growth is cleared away 
instead of grubbing, if one can wait, for by the persistent cutting down 
of growth, many small stumps and roots will decay enough in a year 
or two to be plowed out with a strong team and plow. 

Burning of the Debris. — However the trees and underbrush may 
be wrenched from the soil, fire is the final cleaner. Where trees are 
to be worked up into fire-wood, it should be done as soon as they are 
felled, for the work is much less than after they become dry and hard. 
If it is not designed to break the land the first winter, the wood is left 
to season and it becomes lighter and easier to handle. The brush and 
roots, if no use is to be made of them, can be left to lie on the clearing 
to dry out during the following summer, and after the first rains of 
the following fall the whole area can be burned over. Such stumps 
as do not burn with the brush must be gathered in piles and re-fired. 
Burning before the first rain should not be attempted, unless it be in 
exceptional situations, because of the danger of communicating fire 
to the surrounding country, which is a standing danger in our dry 
climate. Under the present law it becomes necessary to secure permis- 



GRADING LAND AFTER CLEARING 63 

sion from the State Forester at Sacramento before starting field fires 
in the dry season. After the rain, clean up the ground perfectly. 

First Crop on a Clearing. — It is the opinion of some cleurers 
in the redwood region that the soil is not fit for fruit trees the first 
year after the original growth is removed, and they grow a field crop 
the first year. They claim that peas are the best corrective of "red- 
wood poisoning," and fortunately in the upper redwood district they 
have a climate well suited to the pea. Whether their theory is right 
or not, their practice is of advantage, because they get a better cultiva- 
tion and aeration of the soil, and kill out much of the sprouting from 
the old roots, which is usually quite persistent in the moister parts of 
the State. 

Surface Leveling and Draining. — There is often occasion to clear 
the land of stone and rocks. The latter should be blasted out of the 
way so that the land may be clear for the plow and cultivator. Once 
in a while one will come upon a stone wall inclosing an orchard in this 
State, as trim and true a wall as the most thrifty New England farmer 
can boast, but walls are not common. Our valley orchard lands are, 
as a rule, naturally as free from stone as they are from underbrush, 
but on the hills it is different. Probably the best wav to dispose of 
much of the stone is to dig trenches in the natural water runs, put in 
stone, cover wath small brush, and then with soil deep enough so 
the plow will not reach the brush. This disposes of the stone for all 
time, and at the same time helps to drain the soil. Concerning other 
treatment of the land after the rubbish is removed, P. W. Butler 
writes as follows : 

When water runs are wide, lateral ditches should be cut extending entirely 
through the moist areas. If during the rainy season a sun is likely to have more 
water than can be conveyed properly through a covered trench, it should be left 
open and graded, so that a team can cross it. and for fifteen feet on each side 
sow to alfalfa, which will take the place of unsightly weeds, that would otherwise 
grow at the point that cannot be cultivated. 

To distribute the work more evenly through the first year buildings can be 
erected, a well dug. and the trenches done in the drv season, while all the grub- 
bing, leveling, plowing and planting must be done the following season, as soon 
as the ground is sufficiently moistened. All depressions where water would stand 
should be filled, and all flat places should be graded until water will readily flow 
off, and not be retained so near the surface of the ground as to cause it to 
become soured. This leveling can be best done by one man and a pair of horses. 
Plow the adjacent elevated land and scrape into the places to be filled. The land 
is now ready for plowing, and should be done thoroughly, subsoiling to as great 
a depth as the removal of tho stumps will allow. It is now well to go over the 
ground again with the scraper and level all the most elevated points so they can 
be readily reached by water in irrigating. Then cross-plow as deeply as possible 
without again subsoiling, harrow and drag, and the ground will be ready to plant. 

Mr. Butler writes with reference to the foothills of the Sierra 
Nevada, where irrigation must be practiced. Where irrigation is not 
used, leveling, or rather grading, may be unnecessary, but it is often 
quite desirable that there may be no depressions to retain surplus water. 
The life of the trees and ease of cultivation may demand this unless 
the soil should be light and deep enough to allow free drainage. 



CHAPTER VIII 
NURSERY OPERATIONS 

California nursery stock is unrivaled in growth, health and vigor. 
This is the verdict of all the visiting horticulturists, and has been for- 
mally declared by the victories of California tree growers at the World's 
Fairs held in this country, where the highest premiums were awarded 
to Californians in nearly all classes in which they exhibited since 1885. 

The quality of the trees which can be purchased at our nurseries, 
and the very reasonable rates at which they are sold, make it little 
worth while for the orchard planter to try to grow his own trees. In 
fact, the investment called for to purchase a good assortment of well- 
grown trees will be one of the best which the orchard planter can 
make. The professional grower, if he is honest and enterprising, can 
give the purchaser the advantage of his experience and skill in the 
choice of stocks suited to his soil, varieties of fruit adapted to his 
situation, and be of assistance to him in other ways connected with his 
enterprise ; and such helps to an inexperienced planter or to a newcomer 
are very valuable. There may be, however, some reader who is distant 
from established nurseries, or possessed of limited means, who may 
like to use his spare time in growing his own trees, and to such sugges- 
tions are offered. There will, however, be very much which can be 
learned only by actual experience. 

In the selection of a location for a commercial nursery there are 
matters involved which it is not proposed to discuss. Attention will 
be paid rather to matters connected with what may be called a farm 
nursery. The first point will be the selection of a small piece of ground, 
which offers proper soil, exposure, and, in some parts of the State, 
facilities for irrigation. 

Proper Soil for Nursery. — The soil should be a mellow loam, 
easy of cultivation and not disposed to crust and crack. In all respects 
what one would choose as a rich, kind garden soil will answer well 
for the nursery. The soil should be moist, but thoroughly drained, 
either naturally or artificially, for time and labor will be largely wasted 
on a water-logged soil. In this respect a soil which might yield fair 
crops of some shallow-rooted vegetables would not always be suitable 
for young trees, which, to do well, must have favorable conditions to 
send the roots to considerable depth. Good spots are often found in 
the rich loam along the banks of creeks, as in such situations one finds 
generally a deep alluvium, well drained by the creek. But such situa- 
tions, if liable to overflow, should be rejected because standing water 
is not good for trees, and because the soil will be apt to be soaked with 
water and inaccessible just at the time when the trees should be lifted 
for transplanting to orchard. 

It is not always possible to find an ideal nursery spot on every 
ranch, but still trees may be well grown on less favorable places if 

64 



PREPARATION OF SOIL FOR NURSFRY 65 

attention is given to correcting natural defects. I<"or example, if the 
soil be naturally heavy, it may be improved somewhat by repeated 
plowing and cultivation, during the year before starting the trees. If 
it be an adobe, its mechanical condition may be greatly improved by the 
application of a top dressing of lime at the rate of six hundred to one 
thousand pounds of lime to the acre. For this purpose "lime waste." 
which contains both lime and wood ashes, can be had cheaply at the 
kilns. Old plaster which may have been left from house repairs is 
excellent. Even builders' lime would not be very expensive, for but 
little would be required for so small a plot of land as a farm nursery 
would need to cover. The lime will increase the amount of plant food 
in a heavy soil as well as render it more friable. Another way in which 
a small area of heavy soil may be improved is by the addition of sand. 
A few loads of sand, if it can be had near by, will remove the tendency 
to crack, and will act as mulch to prevent evaporation of moisture. If 
the soil be very loose and subject to too rapid drying out, the remedy 
will be moderate irrigation during the summer, but it should cease 
early enough to allow the young trees to ripen their wood before the 
frosts of autumn. Mulches of various light, fine materials, rotted straw 
and the like, may be used to advantage among the young seedlings in 
preventing drying out of the soil, if the plot is to be hand-worked, but 
such materials are apt to be in the way of neat, thorough work with 
the horse. A mulch of sand, if available, is not open to this objection 

In choosing soil for a nursery, a piece of land which has been in 
cultivation for garden or field crops is to be preferred over a newly- 
cleared piece. It is often the case that soil from which old stumps or 
shoots have recently been removed has become soured from the process 
of decay in the dead wood. Although the deposits of humus from 
decay of woody fiber tends to enrich the soil, afterwards certain 
acids are formed if the land lies without cultivation. These are not 
favorable to the growth of young roots, and a crop to which as much 
time is given as a crop of young trees, should not be placed upon it. 
This evil quality in the soil is removed by cultivation and aeration, or 
may be corrected by the application of lime. This state of soil is most 
complained of in connection with old stumps and roots of oak trees. 

Situation and Exposure. — Warmth in the soil is necessary to a 
good growth, and a good year's growth is essential to the production 
of a satisfactory tree. Drainage contributes notably to the warmth 
of the soil. Exposure is also of importance. Plenty of sunshine and 
protection from cold winds are to be secured. Sometimes a little eleva- 
tion is desirable. It would be a serious mistake to seek moist, low land 
if the piece lies at the bottom of a little valley or depression where the 
cold air settles during the night and frosts are frequent. In such cases 
choose higher ground. Of course, in broad, open valleys there is not 
this objection, for such seasonable frosts as may be expected there are 
not injurious to deciduous nursery stock. The greatest nurseries in 
the State are in the open valleys, not on the lowest ground, however, in 
all cases, but on what would be called good, rich valley land. There 
are. however, situations in the thermal belts in which the temperature 
does not fall low enough to check growth of deciduous trees and cause 



66 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

the leaves to drop. In such cases it has been found desirable to select 
lower and colder ground for the nursery of deciduous trees. 

Preparation for Nursery Ground. — The best preparation for 
nursery ground is the growth, the previous season, of a cultivated or 
hoed crop. This will secure frequent working of the soil, thorough 
pulverization of the clods, etc. The produce of the hoed crop should 
thus pay the cost of putting the land in good condition, at least. Where 
the retention of moisture is an object, as it really is in some parts of 
the State where the annual rainfall is sometimes small and no facilities 
for irrigation provided, it will perhaps pay better in the end to keep 
the land in bare fallow during the previous summer ; but there must be 
frequent and thorough cultivation, keeping the surface always mellow, 
more moisture will be lost by evaporation than a hoed crop would 
require for its growth. Properly cultivated fallow soil will have a moist- 
ure within a few inches of the surface, while un worked soil adjoining 
will be baked hard and dry to a depth of several feet. During the 
winter immediately preceding planting, the green stuff should be 
allowed to grow for a time, but should be plowed under before it gets 
high enough to interfere with perfect turning of smooth furrows. 
The decay of this green crop is of advantage to the soil. Another plow- 
ing in the spring, and a thorough harrowing, will leave the ground in 
good condition to receive the pits or root grafts, as the case may be. 
In this plowing for nursery there should be deep work done and sub- 
soiling, as will be more fully set forth under the head of preparing land 
for orchard, to which the reader is referred. 

Growth of Seedlings for the Nursery, — The two chief ways of 
producing fruit trees are, from seedlings grown on the spot ; second, 
from buds and root grafts upon stock imported from the East or from 
abroad. First, as to the growth of seedlings : 

It is usual to take seeds from sources where they can be collected 
with the least trouble. Apple seeds are washed out from the pomace 
of the cider press ; apples and pears from the coring and peelings of 
canneries and drying establishments ; pits of the stone fruits are derived 
from the same source. Supplies can usually be purchased from such 
establishments at a moderate cost. The trouble is that from such 
supplies one is apt to get seeds and pits from all varieties, possessing 
different degrees of health and vigor. There is just as much to be 
gained from selecting the seed from which to grow good strong stocks 
for fruit trees as there is in selecting good garden or field seed. One 
can generally get good peach pits, for it is easy to have the order filled 
when the cannery is running on strong-growing yellow varieties, for 
these are believed to be most vigorous, and yet some claim much prefer- 
ence for pits from vigorous seedling trees, and made extra efforts 
to secure them. Wherever it is possible, and if one is only to 
produce a small lot of trees, it is practicable to select from the fruit 
the seeds for planting. Not only is there great difference in the strength 
of different varieties, but individual trees vary greatly. If one is taking 
seeds from an old orchard to start his nursery with, he can take pains 
to get his seed from his strongest trees, and thus secure also that which 
is probably best adapted to his locality. 



AI'I'LK, ri:.\R AND CHERRY SEEDLINGS 67 

Apple and Pear Seedlings. — For a small lot of apple and pear 
trees tlie seed can be best sown in boxes. Select plump pips and 
keep in moist sand, from the time they are taken from the fruit until 
sowing'. Fill the boxes, which should be three or four inches deep, with 
good garden mold, cover the seed about half an inch, and then cover 
the soil lightly with chaff or fine straw to prevent the surface from 
drying out. Be sure that the boxes have cracks or holes in the bottom 
for drainage, and the whole is kept moist, but not wet. When the seed- 
lings have grown to the height of three inches they can be set out in 
the nursery rows as one would set out cabbage plants. 

Cherry Seedlings. — There are different ways of handling pits of 
stone fruits to prepare them for seeting out in the open ground, which 
will be described. The cherry is grown from pits of two wild varieties ; 
one is commonly called the "Black Mazzard." It is the common wild 
cherry of the East, and is the original type of what are known as the 
Heart and Bigarreau types of cherries. The other is the "Mahaleb," a 
European wild species, which is used in the East, where it thrives 
better than the Alazzard, as it is hardier stock. In this State the 
Mahaleb does not seem to have much dwarfing effect, as trees on that 
stock in this State over twenty-five years old are twenty-five inches in 
diameter of trunk. The Mahaleb, however, ripens its wood earlier, and 
for this reason may be valuable in the colder parts of the State. It is 
also freer from root trouble by extremes of wetness and drouth in the 
soil, and is largely used on low lands. The Mazzard is, however, chiefly 
used in California. Cherry stones are sometimes taken from the fully- 
ripened fruit, dried for two or three days, the stones cracked carefully 
and planted at once in good soil and kept properly moist. They will 
germinate soon and make a growth of a foot or so the first season. 
Such stocks are taken up for grafting in the winter and set out in nur- 
sery row the next spring. A better way of treating cherrv is that given 
by W. W. Smith of Vacaville ; 

The fruit of the Mazzard should be allowed to get perfectly ripe on the tree, 
then gathered and let lie in a heap for three or four days, so that they may l)e 
partially or wholly freed from the pulp by wasiiing them in water. They should 
then be spread out in the shade and stirred frequently for about twenty-four 
hours. This will give the outside of the pit time to dry sufficiently to prevent 
molding, while the kernel itself will remain fresh and green. They should then 
be placed in moist (not wet) sand and kept so until the rains set in in the fall, 
when they can be planted in drills, in good, rich, mellow soil prepared the previ- 
ous spring and kept clean of weeds through the summer, ready for the purpose. 
They should never be allowed to get perfectly dry; and the reason for it is that 
we have but little or no freezing and thawing weather in this country to cause 
the pits to open; but if they are kept constantly moist it answers the same pur- 
pose as freezing. The seeds of the Mahaleb cherry will sprout with less diffi- 
culty, but the same rules for keeping the Mazzards will apply to them. 

Other stock for the cherry will be discussed in the chapter on that 
fruit. 

Citrus Fruits. — The propagation of citrus fruits will be described 
in detail in Chapters XXXII, XXXITI, and XXXIV. 

The Larger Stone Fruits. — In handling pits of the larger stone 
fruits, apricot, peach,' plum, etc., the chief requisite is to prevent 



68 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

drying and great hardening of the pit. Some plant in the fall and 
trust to natural conditions to start the seedling in the spring, but this 
interferes with the cultivation of the ground, and leaves the seedling 
to grow in soil which has perhaps been puddled by heavy winter 
rains. There must also be much hand work done to clear the rows 
from weeds. It is much better to keep the pits from drying by covering 
with sand moderately moist, hasten the sprouting by appropriate treat- 
ment toward spring, and then plant out in thoroughly prepared soil, 
and they will make a satisfactory growth. The following method, 
by D. J. Parmele, of Vacaville, has given good results : 

Keep the pits out of the sun until the rains commence in the fall, then put 
them into a box about a foot deep with openings at the bottom for drainage, and 
scatter sand or fine earth through them, putting about two inches on top, and 
place them under the eaves of a building on the south side, where they will get 
well soaked every time it rains. If there should be a long dry spell during the 
winter, water them a little. About March they will open and sprout. Then take 
a plow and open a deep furrow in loose, mellow ground, and, with a hoe, pull 
about two-thirds of the dirt back into the furrow, breaking the clods, and mak- 
ing it fine, the same as you would if you expected to plant onion seed there. 
Drop the sprouted pits in straight line, and cover two inches. On account of the 
extra work in preparing the ground, the trees will be large enough to bud in July. 

Another way is to spread out the pits on a smooth piece of ground 
and cover with sacks, and over these a layer of straw three or four 
inches thick to retain moisture. The pits may be planted out as soon 
as they crack open, although no harm will be done if they are allowed 
to lie until the sprouts are well out. 

Another method which has been especially recommended for 
treatment for almonds is the following: Lay boards upon the ground 
and cover them with an inch of sand ; spread on this a layer of almonds 
and then another inch of sand, and so on. Keep the pile wet, and in 
three weeks of warm weather they will burst open. Plant in drills 
one inch deep and put over them a light coat of rotten straw. 

If from any cause the pits have become quite dry, they should be 
soaked in water two or three days before planting. 

Nut Tree Seedlings. — In growing nut-tree seedlings, much the 
same methods are followed as with pits of stone fruits. There are 
methods described in detail by California growers which should be 
given. As has been said, the nuts may be planted at any time after 
ripening, in the milder parts of the State, if the grower will undertake 
the greater care and cultivation. On some light soils where the rainfall 
is not excessive, this is not much trouble. Felix Gillet, of Nevada 
City, gives this as his method : 

The nuts may be planted as soon as gathered, though in Nevada City it is 
too cold to plant them in the fall, for the frost in winter would surely lift the 
nuts right out of the ground. For keeping and sprouting walnuts, I throw into 
the bottom of a box one inch deep of sand, then a layer of nuts y put in another 
inch of sand, and another layer of nuts, and so on to one or two inches from the 
top. Then water well with a sprinkler and water again during the winter when- 
ever the sand gets too dry. The sand has to be pretty well saturated with water, 
esneciall" from the first of January down to planting time, which is in February, 
March or April, according to localities. The latter part of March or first week 
in April is best for Nevada City. The nuts are planted in drills and covered 
to a depth of two to three inches. 



NUT TREE SEEDLINGS 69 

In propagating chestnuts it is always better to select for seed the largest, 
tinest and healthiest nuts ; in the fall or beginning of winter the nuts have to be 
planted in a box of damp sand, by layers, the box being kept in a cellar. The 
nuts may be stored in a hole in the open ground, a layer of chestnut leaves being 
tirst thrown in the bottom of the hole, on top of that a layer of nuts, then another 
layer of leaves, and so on to the top, which has to be properly covered with two 
or three inches of earth so as to prevent the frost injuring the nuts. In February 
or March, according to location, the nuts are taken out and planted in drills to a 
depth of three to four inches ; less for smaller seed like American chestnuts. 

In growing seedlings of English walnuts, Mr. J. Luther Rowers, 
of Santa Clara, has shown that water-soaking of nuts may make it 
imnecessary to undertake storage in damp sand, if the nuts are of the 
last crop. He describes the method as follows : 

The nuts should be large and thin shelled and should be of last year's crop. 
To ascertain this, break a few and split the kernel open at the germ end, or the 
point where the root starts. If the meat of the kernel shows a clear color they 
are of last year's crop, but if the flesh shows any discoloration they are old and 
will not germinate. I have often got hold of a lot that were mixed, old and new 
together. Never risk a lot of this kind, for failure will follow. After the nuts 
have been selected place them in some kind of a tin vessel ; a five-gallon oil can, 
with the top removed, is just the thing. Then cover them with hot water at not 
over 110 degrees F. Let them remain in this water for 24 hours 
and plant at once, keeping them in the water all the time. Do not let them 
become the least bit dry, and be sure the soil is moist, and put every nut in with 
the sharp point exactly straight down. The root starts from this point and will 
go straight down, and if not molested will the first year be about three times 
the length of the top ; that is, if the top grovv^s one foot, the straight tap root 
will be three feet or more long, and will be from three-fourths to an inch thick 
where it grew out of the nut, tapering both up and down. 

Tribble Brothers, of Elk Grove, give the following as their practice 
with native black walnuts : 

Gather the nuts as soon as most of them have dropped from the trees, and 
put them in a trench. Cover with leaves, and on the leaves put a thin layer of 
earth, leaving them until sprouted and ready to plant in rows. When ready to 
plant, assort the nuts according to the growth of the sprouts, and as we find 
the longest sprouts make the most rapid-growing trees, and by selecting we 
can get even growth in the nursery rows. In our soil we plant the nuts about 
five inches deep. 

Imported Seedlings. — A very large proportion of sotne kinds of 
the cherry, pear and apple trees produced in this State are worked 
upon imported seedling stocks. These stocks are cheap, convenient 
to handle, and are therefore popular. It is easy enough to grow 
peach, almond, apricot, and Myrobalan seedlings, but small seeds, like 
apples and pear, often do not show up well in the spring, especially 
if the soil is of a kind that crusts over withl rain and sunshine. There- 
fore our nurserymen imj^ort these seedlings in the winter, plant them 
out, as has already been described, anrl bud in the following suminer, 
grafting the next spring where the buds fail. If the seedlings are 
large when received, they are often root-grafted at once, and then one 
summer in the nursery gives a tree suitable for planting out. 
These stocks are of better budding size during their first summer than 
California seedlings, which are apt to overgrow. 

Myrobalan plum seedlings were formerly imported to a large ex- 
tent, but are now chiefly home-grown, and seedlings are used instead 



70 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

of cuttings, which formerly were employed largely. This stock has 
secured great favor for plums and prunes, and in some situations, for 
the apricot, as it is hardier against extremes of drouth and moisture. 
Prof. Newton B. Pierce, of Santa Ana, has discovered in California 
upon imported seedlings a serious root-fungus which kills all kinds 
of orchard trees in Europe, and he advises the use of home-grown 
seedlings to escape this danger. 

Fruit Trees from Cuttings. — It is feasible to grow a number of 
kinds of fruit trees from cuttings, but it is not desirable in many cases 
to do it. Trees grown from a graft or bud in a seedling root are 
much better. The root system of a seedling is naturally stronger and 
more symmetrical. The roots from a cutting start out at the bottom 
and spread out horizontally and irregularly. This style of a root 
system is expressively named "duck-foot roots," and they do not give 
the tree a deep, strong hold on the soil. Trees can, however, be multi- 
plied very fast from cuttings. Notable instances of this are the Myro- 
balan plum and the Leconte pear. Cuttings of deciduous trees should 
be taken from well-matured wood of the previous season's growth, 
and planted in rows and in well-prepared soil, as has already been de- 
scribed for the sowing of fruit tree seeds. The cuttings should be 
taken before the sap begins running in the winter. A cutting about 
ten inches long, four-fifths of its length buried in the ground, will 
answer. Be sure that the ground is firmed well at the base of the 
cutting, but keep the surface loose. Small wood is betteI^ than large, 
though, of course, the extreme ends of twigs should be rejected usually. 
Cultivation of cuttings is the same as that of seedlings, and budding, 
when the cuttings are to be used as stocks, is also governed by the same 
rules. 

The orange and lemon can be grown from cuttings, but the work 
is done during the summer while the ground is warm. Cut from wood 
one or two years old ; set in the open ground with partial shade and 
give plenty of water (dry ground is death to their tender roots), but 
be sure that there is free escape for surplus water. Cuttings started 
in the warm weather and given partial shade and plenty of irrigation 
are very apt to succeed. This method of growing these fruits is not, 
however, in wide use or favor. 

The propagation of the grape, olive and fig from cuttings will be 
considered in the chapters on those fruits. 

Planting Out in Nursery. — For planting out in nursery, the 
term "spring" is given as the proper time, but in California it must be 
remembered that spring is not any definite division of the year. 
"Spring weather" comes from the first of February to the first of May, 
according to the latitude or elevation or exposure resulting from local 
topography. Cherries may be ripe in Vaca Valley before fruit trees 
put out leaves in Modoc county ; and between these extremes there 
are advents of spring in other places according to the situation. These 
facts are more fully set forth in the chapter on climate. Spring must 
be detected in the behavior of vegetation and not by the calendar. 
When the tree buds swell and the leaves appear, spring has come for 



IRRIGATION IN THE NURSERY 71 

that locality. But whether one can plant his nursery then or not will 
depend upon the character of the soil and the condition of the rainfall 
for that season. This varies much from year to year. As a rule, 
however, in most parts where fruit is grown at present in large quanti- 
ties, the heavy cold rains will be over by the first of February, and then 
nursery operations can commence if the soil is in good condition. If 
not, the planter must wait until the soil is dry enough to work nicely. 
There will, of course, be heavy rains after the first of February ; but 
they will only necessitate cultivation to loosen the soil, if the nursery 
ground is well situated for drainage, and if it is not it should not be 
used for this purpose. 

Supposing the ground has been deeply plowed and thoroughly 
harrowed, as has been already described, the laying out of the ground 
is the next operation. Everything should be done with a view to the 
use of the horse in cultivation. The rows should be laid out as straight 
as possible. Some use a plow furrow ; some an arrangement like a 
corn-marker, with two cultivator teeth set four feet apart ; some stretch 
a line, to get the pits or root grafts as true to it as possible, and some 
trust to the furrow for straightness. No rule can be laid down for 
means to be employed ; the result must depend upon the eye and skill 
of the individual. Some people can hardly shoot a straight line with a 
gun. Each must do the best he can in this respect. 

There is a difference in practice as to distance between the rows in 
nursery. The usual distance is four feet, but others claim that it is 
better to make the rows six feet apart, especially where no irrigation 
is practised, as this gives the young trees more room, and if the ground 
is kept thoroughly cultivated, as it should be, it gives the roots a 
greater supply of moisture to draw upon. In growing a small lot of 
trees, where there is plenty of land, it is, of course, desirable to give 
them every advantage in the way of facilities for growth, but on the 
other hand, an overgrown tree is not desirable. Thrift and strength 
must be sought rather than size. 

At the ends of the rows spaces of about twelve feet should be left 
as turning-ground for the horse when cultivating, and as a roadway. 
The length of nursery rows depends upon the taste of 'the grower. 
It is convenient to have alleys wide enough for a horse and cart at 
intervals of one hundred' to three hundred feet, but in small nurseries 
the head-lands would probably give all the access required. 

The depth for planting seeds and pits must be regulated by the size 
of the seed and the character of the soil, as is always laid down by 
the authorities, and in this State another condition must be made, and 
that is the climate or weather conditions prevailing in the locality. 
Where the rainfall is generally light and the soil loose, seed must be 
planted deeper than where good spring showers are to be expected. 
In fine soils seeds must be planted shallower than in^ coarse, even with 
the same rainfall. Judgment and experience must dictate in this matter, 
and if a man has no experience, he is pretty apt to get it. 

During the spring months the cultivator must be used as often as 
may be required to keep the weeds from getting too high, or the soil 
from becoming too densely packed by heavy rains, but the ground should 



72 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

never be worked when too wet. It requires some watchfulness and 
promptitude to use the cultivator just at the right time. 

Nursery Irrigation. — In parts of the State where the rainfall is 
adequate, cultivation thorough, the soil sufficiently retentive, and 
atmospheric conditions favorable, the seedling will make its growth 
without irrigation, and many nurseries are on ground not provided at 
all with irrigation facilities. In other parts of the State irrigation is 
necessary. Water should be applied sparingly, and yet enough to keep 
the seedlings in healthy growing condition. This is shown by the 
leaves, which should not droop or curl. Excessive irrigation should 
be guarded against, because a soft, excessive growth is very undesir- 
able. Water is a good thing, and in some cases a very necessary 
thing, but the use of it should be wisely regulated. At budding it is 
necessary that the sap should be free and the bark slip easily. To 
foster this condition it is sometimes desirable to give a watering a few 
days before budding commences. Water should be applied by run- 
ning it through shallow furrows between the rows, and the cultivator 
should follow as soon as the ground is dry enough to work freely. 



I 



CHAPTER IX 
BUDDING AND GRAFTING 

If the nursery ground has been well worked and the seed properly 
handled, the growth of the seedling will be strong and rapid. If an 
early start was had and other conditions favorable, some kinds will 
be ready for budding in June, and the production of what are called 
"June buds," as will be described presently. In ordinary practice, 
however, budding will come later, and the budding season extends 
from July to October. The weight of the budding of deciduous trees 
is generally done in August and September. 

BUDDING 

The process of budding, as employed on all the common fruit trees, 
is very simple. It consists in lifting the bark and inserting a bud from 
another tree in such a way that the inner bark of the bud shall come 
in contact with the layer of growing wood in the stock, and then it 
will be quickly knit to it by the new cell-growth if the bark is closed 
around the inserted bud closely enough to prevent the air from drying 
the two surfaces at the point of contact. In the engraving 1 is the 
cutting or "bud stick" from the tree of the kind into which it is de- 
sired to transform the seedling. This cutting is usually made from the 
growth of the present season, which has well-formed buds at the axils 
of the leaves, although in some cases older dormant buds may be used, 
as will appear in the discussion of the different fruits. If buds are 
desired to mature early, pinch off the ends of the growing shoots from 
which they are to be taken. Suckers and so-called "water-sprouts" 
should not be used, but rather well-formed wood from the branches 
of the tree. It is requisite that the buds be taken from a vigorous 
healthy tree of the variety desired. But sticks can be carried or sent 
considerable distances if packed in damp moss or other material to 
prevent drying, but care must be taken not to enclose too much water 
or decay will be promoted. Fresh shoots in tight tin boxes without 
wet packing are safer and carry very long distances. Sealing the ends 
with grafting wax is also a good precaution against drying out. 

Budding knives can be bought at all seed stores and cutlery estab- 
lishments. They have a thin, round-ended blade at one end of the 
handle, and at the other end the bone is thinned down, or a bone blade 
inserted. The former is for cutting and the latter for lifting the bark 
of the stock into which the bud is to be placed. Armed with a bud 
stick and such a knife, the "budder" starts in upon a row of seedlings. 
Bending the seedling over a little and holding it between his left arm 
and his left leg, he reaches down for a smooth place on the bark as near 
the ground as convenient to work, and makes a horizontal cut. and 
from that a perpendicular cut downwards toward the roots, as shown 



74 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 





1 A stick Of bud wood. 2 Cutting the bud. 3 Vertical incision 




4 Transverse incision. 5 Inserting the bud. 6 InsS^d bud ready 

for tying. 




7 Waxed cloth ready 
for twisting. 




8 Waxed cloth tightly 9 Bud staked and tied, 
twisted. 



DETAILS OF BUDDING 



75 



at 3, in the engraving-, with the bark slightly lifted and ready for the 
insertion of the bud. Next he cuts from his bud stick a bud, as shown 
at 2. This carries with it, on the back, a small portion of the wood of 
the bud stick as well as the bud and bark. It was once claimed that 
this wood should be carefully dug out. but in budding most kinds of 
trees it is not necessary ; in fact, it may be better to leave it in ; such 
at any rate is the general practice. The point of the bud is now in- 
serted at the opening at the top of the sTit in the bark of the stock and 
pushed down into place, as shown in figure 5. To handle the bud, 
the part of the leaf stem which is left on is of material assistance. 
Nothing remains now but to apply the ligature which is to hold down 
the bark around the bud. 

There are various ways of tying in the bud. Any way will do 
which holds down the bark closely, but not too tightly. Different 
materials are also used, soft cotton twine, stocking yarn, strips of 
cotton cloth, candle wicking, etc. The last-named is perhaps the best 
material, on all accounts, although strips of cheap calico bear evenly 
upon the bark and do very good work. The use of twine is speedy, 
but the strands bearing upon a narrow surface, and not being elastic, 
thev are apt to do injury by cutting into the bark unless carefully 
watched and loosened. The fiber from basswood bark was formerly 
largely used, but has given place to the other materials named, which 
are more handily obtained. The buds must be examined about a week 
or ten days after the insertion, and the ligature loosened, for other- 
wise it will cut into the rapidly-growing stock. Sometimes trees are 
badlv injured by neglect in this particular. 

In making June buds, where immediate growth of the bud is de- 
sired, some growers make a hard not with the cord around the stock, 
above the bud. and then use the loose ends to tie the bud. When the 
binding around the bud is loosened, the hard knot remains on the 
stock, girdles it. and forces the sap. into the bud. Thin wire, known to 
nurserymen as "label wire," is also used for this purpose. 

In going through the nursery row. all seedlings, which are large 
enough are budded at once. In going through the row again to look 
to the bands, if the bud is seen to be fresh looking, it is considered to 
have "taken." In stocks where the first bud has dried up, another is 
inserted lower down. Sometimes seedlings which were too small to 
hold a bud at the first working over are given a bud later in the 
season, or left for taking up for root grafting in the winter. 

In nursery practice the budder does not 'stop to tie his buds, but is 
followed in the row bv another man, who carries the tying material, 
and does this part of the work. ' 

The common method of budding thus described is used on all 
common orchard fruits. Special stvles of budding for 'special fruits 
will be described in the chapters treating of those fruits. 

Usuallv the budded trees are allowed to stand (in the nursery row 
with no other treatment that year than the insertion and care of the 
bud. the latter remaining dormant until the '.next spring. Then, as 
soon as the sap begins to swell the buds on the stock, the top is cut ofF 
down to about two inches above the bud, and all growth is kept off 



76 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

except that of the inserted bud. When that has grown out about 
twelve inches, the stub is cut off to about three-quarters of an inch or 
less from the bud, and the wood is quickly grown over by the bark. As 
there arq apt to be dormant buds on the stock below the inserted bud, 
the trees have to be examined from time to time, and all such suckers 
removed. This is the common practice with budded trees. Excep- 
tions will be noticed presently in connection with definitions of different 
kinds of trees know to the trade. 

Spring Budding. — What has been said in reference to budding 
applies to the use of dormant buds. It is also possible to work with 
what is called a "pushing bud." This process, as described by a dis- 
tinguished French authority, consists of retarding the growth of the 
buds on the scions by burying them in the ground until the sap is start- 
ing well in the stock in the spring, and then putting them in, trim- 
ming off the top of the stock so as to force the bud into growth. In 
this way the grower of a rare variety may secure trees for planting 
out the following winter, or he may secure a stock of buds for fall 
budding, and thus multiply his stock of a desirable variety very rapidly. 
A modification of this method consists in taking buds in the spring 
when they have grown out even half an inch, and inserting them by 
the usual method of lifting the bark, when the sap is flowing well in 
the stock. Then cut off about halfi the stock, so as not to give the bud 
too much sap at first, and afterward, when it is seen to have taken well, 
the balance of the stock is cut off near the bud. This method gives a 
tree the first season and saves a year over dormant budding. Shade 
and protection from dry wind are desirable. 

GRAFTING 

The next process of propagation to be considered is that by grafting. 
Its success, as with budding, consists in bringing the growing wood 
(inner bark or alburnum) of the scion into contact with the same layer 
of the stock. It can be applied to any part of the tree, from the top- 
most branch to the lowest root, as is the case when new trees are made 
from scions and root fragments. Thus grafting pertains both to the 
production of young trees for planting out and to the transformation 
of old trees bearing worthless fruit into producers of choice varieties. 

Grafting for the production of young trees is first in order. Instead 
of budding the seedling during the first summer of its growth, it may 
be allowed to complete its season's growth, and drop its leaves. When 
thus dormant the young trees are taken from the ground, the roots 
rinsed off with water if the ground is wet and sticky, or merely shaken 
free from clinging earth if in a dry time. Enough trees are dug at 
once to graft at a sitting. The grafting can be done at the work bench 
in the tool-house or barn, and if one is pressed with other daylight 
work, it may be done by lamplight at the kitchen table, if the house- 
wife can be conciliated for the muss it will make. 

Care of Scions. — The scions should be previously selected, and 
whether taken from trees on the place or brought from near or distant 
sources away from the farm, should have been placed as soon as pro- 



GRAFTING METHODS ILLUSTRATED 



11 






Cleft Graft. 



Bark Graft. 



Saddle Graft. Wedge Graft. 




Whip Graft. Bad and Good Whip Graft. 



Side Graft. 



78 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

cured in moist earth on the north side of the house or other building, 
where they will keep cool and damp until one is ready to use them. 
At the East and other parts of this State where the ground is apt to 
freeze, it is necessary to keep scions in the cellar with their butts 
covered with moist sand, but over most of the area of the State 
nothing more is needed than to put down in the earth at the base of 
a tree or on the north side of a building, with, perhaps a box or barrel 
inverted over them to keep out mice and other intruders. Care must 
be taken not to let them dry up. If it is desirable for any reason to 
keep scions dormant long into the spring or summer, of course storage 
in a cool cellar is better, for in the open ground the scions will burst 
into leaf after a warm spell of spring weather. 

In selecting wood for scions, as for bud sticks, never take water 
shoots or suckers that start from the body of the tree and push up 
through the older branches, but always give the preference to sound, 
fully-matured wood, at the ends of the lower or nearly horizontal 
branches. Careful experiments have shown that trees grown from 
such scions are more likely to take on a low, spreading habit than 
those from the central or upper branches. The scions should be tied 
in bundles with a stout cord ; and a piece of a shingle, with the name 
of the variety written plainly and deeply thereon, should be tied in 
with each bundle. 

Grafting Wax. — In grafting, a good grafting wax is requisite. 
The ingredients are mixed in different proportions by different 
growers. A few recipes which are known to give good results are 
as follows : 

Two and one-fourth lbs. resin ; 2 lbs. beeswax, ^4 of a lb. tallow. 

One lb. mutton tallow; 2 lbs. beeswax; 4 lbs. resin. 

Two lbs. resin; 2 lbs. beeswax; ^4 lb. tallow, and a little linseed oil. 

Two lbs. resin ; 1 lb. beeswax, 1 quart linseed oil ; 4 tablespoonfuls turpentine. 

One lb. beeswax; 5 lbs. resin; 1 pint linseed oil; 1 oz. lampblack. 

One lb. beeswax ; 5 lbs. resin ; 1 pint linseed oil ; 1 pint flour — the flour 
stirred in after the other ingredients have boiled together and cooled some- 
what. 

All these mixtures are made with the aid of gentle heat, and during 
grafting the wax must be kept warm enough to apply easily with a 
small brush. To do this the wax dish may be kept on a hot brick, to be 
changed for a fresh one as it cools, or, better still, is to heat the wax 
in an old fruit can or something of that kind, inside another, which is 
partly full of warm water. A more capacious heater can be made by 
removing the top of a five-gallon oil can and making a hole for draft 
on one side near the bottom. A slow fire can be kept going to heat the 
wax pot which is suspended from a rod across the top. A wire handle 
makes this outfit portable. The wax should not be so hot as to run 
too easily, but just right to spread well. 

Grafting is greatly facilitated by the use of strips of waxed cloth 
or waxed paper, the latter being quite good enough for grafts, which 
are low enough to be protected by a ground covering; also for root 
grafts. This waxed paper is made by spreading a thin coat of wax, 
with a brush, upon tough, thin wrapping paper, cutting up the paper, 
when cold, with a sharp knife, on a board, into strips about an inch 



MANY KINDS OF GRAFTING WAX 79 

wide. Waxed cloth is made by dipping cheap cotton cloth into hot 
wax, pulling the pieces between the edges of two boards to take out as 
much wax as possible, and when the cloth is cold, tearing it up into 
half-inch strips for small grafts or wider strips for larger grafts. When 
grafting is going on indoors, these strips hanging near the stove are 
kept in good, soft condition for use. 

There are grafting preparations which do not require heating, but 
remain in a semi-fluid state, and then become very hard by contact with 
the air. The following is a popular French preparation : 

Melt one pound of resin over a gentle fire. Add to it one once of beef tal- 
low, and stir it well. Take it from the fire, let it cool down a little, and then 
mix it with a tablcspoonful of spirits of turpentine, and after that add about 
seven ounces of very strong alcohol. The alcohol cools it down so rapidly that 
it will be necessary to put it once more on the fire, stirring it constantly. Great 
care is necessary to avoid igniting the alcohol. 

This wax is easily prepared, and when well corked will keep for six 
months. It is put on the wounded part of the tree, very thin, and soon 
becomes as hard as stone. Thus it is valuable not only for grafting, 
but for covering the scars caused by removing limbs in pruning. It is, 
however, rather an amateur's recourse, as it is rather expensive for 
large commercial operations. 

As a substitute for all the old grafting-waxes, asphaltum, "Grade 
D," has recently been widely and successfully used. It is kept a little 
warm to spread well. Resin may be melted in one part to four. 

Cleft Grafting. — Where various-sized stocks are to be used, as 
will be the case with a bunch of home-grown seedlings, different styles 
of grafting must be used. Where the stock is much larger than the 
scion, as is apt to be the case with California seedlings, the cleft graft 
will be simplest. Cut off the top smoothly above the root crown and 
then split the top of the stock, as shown in the engraving. Then pre- 
pare the scion by whittling it to wedge-shape at the lower end. Open 
the slit in the stock with a little w^edge and insert the scion so that its 
inner bark matches with the inner bark of the stock, something as shown 
in the second figure. It does not matter whether the outside of the scion 
is flush with the outside of the stock or not ; the vital point is to get the 
growing layers, just inside the barks, in contact with each other, and, to 
be sure of this it may be well to give the scion a slight diagonal pitch, 
for if the?- barks cross each other, this desirable contact is sure to be 
made. It is well to make the side of the wedge of the scion which goes 
nearer to the center of the stock a little thinner than the outside. 

A scion for a root graft is cut longer than for use in the top of the 
tree, for in planting, the point of grafting is placed a little way under- 
ground. Such scions are usually cut wtih four or five buds. After 
the scion is in place, it only remains to wrap it closely with a piece of 
waxed cloth or paper, in such a way that all the cut surfaces are 
covered, extending the wrapper a little below the split in the root. 
Paint over the wrapper with warm wax put on with a brush, put a little 
on the U)p of the scion, and the graft is complete. 

Side Grafting. — Another method which prevents splitting the 
stock is the side graf\, shown in the accompanying figure. It consists 



80 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

in bending the stock to one side and cutting in diagonally with a thin- 
bladed, sharp knife, a little more than half way through the stock. 
Into this open cut insert the scion so that the inner barks touch; then 
allowing the stock to straighten up, holds the scion firmly. Covering 
with a wax band drawn tight makes a good job, and such grafts make 
as good growth as the buds set the previous summer. This method 
can be used with stems or branches up to an inch in diameter, and is 
essentially the same, as will be mentioned later, as a side graft for 
working over old trees. In this style of grafting, a stub of three inches 
or more may be left above the graft, and to this the graft can be tied to 
prevent blowing out if it makes a strong growth. Afterward the stub 
is cut back with a sloping cut and waxed or painted to prevent checking. 

Whip Grafting in the Stem. — Grafting above the root or in the 
stem of the stock when stock and scion are about the same size, is 
done by tongue or whip grafting. The accompanying sketch shows a 
whip graft in the stem of the stock. Grafts up to an inch in diameter 
can be made in this way, but it is generally used for smaller wood. 
Care must be taken to secure proper contacts of the inner barks at 
least on one side of the stock. After pushing the parts together, a 
wax band holds them firmly in place, or the joint may be simply tied 
and painted over with wax. 

A Root Graft. — \Mien the root stock and the scion are about the 
same size, the tongue graft is also used, as shown in the figure. In 
making this both the stock and scion are given a sloping cut of about 
the same length, and a secondary cut made in each. When the two 
are put together the wood "tongues in," or interlocks as shown in the 
engraving. The object of this is to make more points of contact for 
the inner barks of root and scion, and at the same time to interlock 
the two more firmly. In putting the two together, if the stock is 
slightly larger than the scion, be sure to put the scion so that the inner 
bark contact is made, and this will bring the scion a little to one side 
of the center. Bind with the wax band, and paint with wax as in the 
case of the former graft. 

In large nursery practice expert grafters have come of late years 
to make this root graft without wax, merely tying in the graft. For 
amateur work at home it is much safer to use the wax. 

Grafting in the root, where the root is much larger than the scion, 
may be done without splitting the root by cutting or sawing out a 
triangular piece on the side of the root, cutting the scion to fit and 
trusting to a strong band to hold it in place. This graft is illustrated 
in the chapter on propagating the grape. It also works well with root 
grafting the walnut, and is used by some in ordinary top grafting on 
other trees. 

Planting out Root Grafts. — This root grafting can be done in 
the winter before it is time to plant out, and the grafts can be made 
a few at a time, as convenient. The grafts, then, as fast as prepared, 
should be bedded in moist sand in the cellar, and will make their con- 
tact firm, and even start to growing a httle. In planting out in the 
nursery rows be sure the earth is firmed well around the root, otherwise 
many will be lost. Plant ten or twelve inches apart in the rows. Keep 



CLASSES OF NURSERY STOCK 81 

the weeds down and the soil well cultivated and loose on the surface, 
and the first season's growth will give a tree fit for planting out in 
orchard in the coming winter. For irrigation the rules already given 
for the growth of seedlings for budding will apply. 

PRUNING TREES IN NURSERY 

As for other treatment of the trees (either from bud or root graft) 
in nursery during the first year, there is some difference of opinion 
and practice. If the young tree will be content to make a straight 
switch with good buds in the axils of the leaves, but no laterals thrown 
out, it will be in the best possible shape for planting in the orchard, 
and gives the planter a chance to make the head at whatever height 
suits him, and to secure uniformity through the orchard. All trees will 
not, however, be content with this growth, but will push out laterals 
all along the stem. Even in this case some let the whole growth go 
for the planter to treat as he thinks best. Another plan is to go over 
the nursery when the young stock is about two feet high and pinch 
back the laterals part way, but retaining the leaves nearest the stem 
to shade the stem. This pinching back is done from the ground up to 
a height of one to one and a half feet, and above that the growth is 
left to take its natural course, to be cut as desired when the head of 
the tree is formed. Pinching back develops buds near the stem and 
gives the planter a better chance to head the tree lower if he likes. 
Another practice which prevails to some extent, is to pinch off the 
terminal bud when the young tree has reached a height of about two 
and a half or three feet in the nursery. This soon forces a growth 
of lateral branches, which are in turn pinched after they have grown 
out a couple of feet. The result is the formation of a head on a 
nursery tree the first year, and when such trees are planted in orchard 
they are merely cut back on the laterals, leaving the head as formed 
in the nursery. Such trees are difficult to handle in packing, and take 
much room in shipment. There may, however, be an advantage in 
such practice for the home grower if he is situated in parts of the 
State where the greatest season's growth is attained. Orchard planters 
generally, however, prefer a June bud or a yearling of moderate 
growth, without laterals. 

CLASSES OF NURSERY STOCKS 

The several classes of stock which are to be had from nurseries 
are as follows : 

Root Grafts. — These are seedling roots, or pieces of them, on 
which scions of the desired variety have been grafted on the bench 
and the junction healed over in the cellar. No growth has yet started 
in the scion. If the tree planter wishes this kind of stock, he should 
plant it out in nursery row in the spring and remove the trees to 
orchard the following winter. 

June Buds. — For multiplying varieties very fast, buds are kept 
dormant in a cool plaice ; or, by pinching off the top shoots of the 
current year are forced to mature buds very early. These buds are put 



82 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

into seedling stocks as early in the season as it is possible to get new 
buds developed. This can be hastened by pinching tips of new shoots 
from which they are to be taken, which forces development of lateral 
buds. After budding, the top of the stock is girdled with knife or cord, 
or partly cut away, and growth is forced on the bud so as to give a 
small tree at the end of the first summer. This method of propagation 
is growing in popularity in this State, especially in the foothill districts, 
where small trees are preferred for transplanting. 

Dormant Buds. — Trees are sold in dormant bud when they are 
lifted from the nursery and sent out before any growth has started 
on the inserted bud. The bud should be seen to be the color of healthy 
bark. Such trees should only be used when yearlings are not to be 
had and gain in time is very important. Care must be constantly 
taken that growth starts from the right bud, and that it be protected 
from breaking off by wind or animals. A considerable percentage of 
loss is usual, and extra dormant buds should be planted in nursery 
rows to fill vacancies. 

Yearling Trees. — These are trees which have made one season's 
growth from the bud or graft. Two-year-olds have made two sea- 
sons' growth, and so on. The proper way to count the life of a tree 
is from the starting of growth in the bud or graft, for this point is 
really the birth of the tree. 

WORKING OVER OLD TREES 

Another operation which may be properly considered as a branch 
of propagation is the working over of old trees. There is much of 
this being done every year in this State. The old seedling fruits in the 
older settled parts of the State are being made to bear improved 
varieties ; trees of varieties illy adapted to prevailing conditions are 
changed into strong growing and productive sorts ; trees are changed 
from one fruit to another, when affinity permits. This will be men- 
tioned in the discussion of the different fruits. Still another reason 
for working over is to secure more valuable and marketable varieties. 
Sometimes a mixed orchard is made to bear a straight line of one 
sort which is in demand, or when the grower finds he has too many 
trees of a single kind, which give him more fruit than he can con- 
veniently handle when it all ripens at one time, he works in other 
varieties so as to get a succession of varieties adapted to his purpose, 
and thus secures a longer working season in which to dispose of them. 
This is especially the case in large orchards of apricots, peaches, and 
plums, when the grower depends upon drying his crop. Information 
concerning the successive ripening of varieties can be gained from the 
special chapters on the different fruits. For all of these reasons, and 
others which need not be enumerated, the work of the propagator is 
continually going on even in our large bearing orchards. As with 
young trees, so with old, transforming the character of the tree is 
done both by budding and grafting. 

Budding Old Trees. — One way to prepare an old tree for bud- 
ding is to cut back the branches severely during the latter part of the 



GRAFTING OVER BEARING TREES 83 

winter, which has the effect of forcing out new shoots around the head 
of tlic tree, and in these the buds of the desired variety are set in the 
summer, just as is done in budding nursery stock, except that the 
budding should be done ratlicr earlier because the sap does not run as 
late. \\'hen the shoots are budded, those being selected which are 
situated so as to give the best symmetry to the new head, the shoots 
not budded are broken a foot or so from where they emerge from the 
old wood, and are allowed to hang until pruning time. At the winter 
pruning the budding branches are topped off a little above the bud, 
and when the new shoot starts it is often loosely tied to the stub of 
the old branch to prevent breaking out in the wind. When it gets 
strength, the stub is cut away smoothly to allow the wound to heal over. 

Another way is to insert the buds in the old bark at points where 
it is desirable to have the new branches start. This is sometimes done 
by lifting the bark, as in ordinary budding, and slipping the bud under, 
sometimes by what is called shield or plate budding, which consists 
in removing a piece of the old bark entirely and putting in its place 
a piece of bark of the desired variety, having upon it a dormant bud. 
With plate budding it is necessary to be careful to have the inserted 
bark just the size of the bared spot, and to wrap it more closely than 
when the bud is slipped under the bark of the stock. In all cases in 
budding old trees, care must be taken to get fully-matured buds, and 
it is well to take them from large shoots, which have a thicker and 
firmer bark than may be used in budding nursery stock. It is also 
desirable to be very sure that the buds are taken not only from a tree 
of the desired variety, but from a healthy, vigorous tree of that variety. 

In selecting buds, also, one must be sure that he gets leaf buds, 
and not fruit buds only. In taking buds from some kinds of bearing 
trees, of course, he may sometimes, to get well-ripened buds, be 
obliged to take both fruit and leaf buds together. This will work 
well if care is taken not to rub off the leaf bud. It is rather easier, 
however, to work with buds from young trees not yet in bearing if 
one can be sure that these trees are of the desired variety. 

Grafting Old Trees. — Old trees are also renewed by grafting. 
This is most generally done by the old process of "top grafting." 
The main stem or the larger branches are cut square off, and the scions, 
usually two, but four or more if in the trunk, are shaped and set 
into clefts in the stock as shown in the engraving. It is better to use 
limbs above the main fork, or head of the tree, than to graft in the 
trunk, if the old trees are of good size. The following description, 
which the writer borrows in part from some unknown source, will 
serve to guide novices in the matter : 

The outfit necessary for doing the work consists of a small, fine saw, a 
regular grafting knife, or a pocket-knife with a long, straight sharp blade, wax, 
light mallet, and a hard-wood narrow wedge. After selecting the limb to be 
grafted, saw it off — your own judgment will guide you as to best point, but 
before the saw gets quite through the limb, cut the bark on the under side of 
the limb to prevent the liability of peeling down. 

Next split the stub with knife and mallet and insert the wedge in the center 
of the cleft to hold it open. It is usual to cut the scion with two buds, but 
sometimes better results are had by using scions with but a single bud. Whittle 



84 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

the scion wedge shape, so that it fits nicely down into the cleft. To do this, 
hold it in the left hand with the bud at the ball of the thumb, then cut the side 
toward you ; as will be natural, turn it over, and cut the opposite side in the 
same way, making the wedge a very little thmncr on the edge opposite the bud 
than the other. This will insure a firm pressure at the points where the bark 
of scion and stock meet. 

When set, the bud of the scion will be on line with the outer long portion of 
the graft. The point to be closely observed in adjustment is to have the inner 
or sap bark of the scion connected with the same of the stock. If a trifle too 
far in, or too far out, the work will be a failure. Some people set the graft 
a little out at the top and a little in at the bottom, so as to be sure of a con- 
nection at the crossing point, but there will be firmer hold if there is a union 
the whole length. Our rule has been to have the wood of the scion come exactly 
parallel with the surface of the stock, and we seldom fail in getting firm adhesions 
and solid limbs after years of growth. 

After the scions are set, and two should be put into one limb if large, care- 
fully withdraw the wedge and apply the wax, so that every part of the wood and 
baric cut and split is well coated. In doing this use extreme care not to move 
the scions at all from their sittings. If the pinch of the stock is seen to_ be 
severe, a small wedge may be left in the center to save the scions from crushing. 
If there is a large cleft, it may be filled with damp clay before waxing over. 

Most grafting over of old trees is done by this method, using one 
or another of the wax preparations described upon a preceding page. 
If the cut surface of the stock and the split is thoroughly waxed over 
as low as the bark is split, there is usually little trouble with the growth 
of the scion and the healing over of the stock. In the warmer valleys 
in the interior, the sun is often hot enough to melt the wax and cause 
it to run and bare the wood surfaces. This is prevented by dusting 
the wax thoroughly with brick dust well powdered; but, by a little 
experimenting with the recipes already given, one can secure a wax 
which will stand any heat likely to be encountered. 

For grafting over trees by working upon the limbs, the neatest 
and surest work can be done by methods of grafting which do not 
require the splitting of the stock. There are various ways of doing 
this. One method is shown in the engraving on the next page, and 
consists in cutting the scion as shown, and inserting it beneath the 
raised bark and then binding well with waxed bands, the preparation 
of which has already been described. 

Another method is an application of what the French call oblique 
side grafting. It consists of making an oblique cut downward through 
the bark of the stock and for a distance into the wood, using a chisel 
and mallet or even a strong knife. A saw and knife are also used for 
making this cut, as will be described in the chapter on the peach. A 
small form of side graft has already been shown earlier in this chapter. 
In it the scion is held in with a wax band. Some growers remove 
the top of the stock with a sloping cut about half an inch above the 
scion, as shown in the engraving, and wrap the waxed band well 
around and over all the exposed surfaces. Others do not remove the 
whole of the limb until the scion has started well into growth, and 
then they cut down and pare the stock and cover with a band or with 
a wax that will not run in the sun. 

Several ingenious devices have been patented by Californians for 
securing uniformity in the incision in the stock and in shaping the 
scion, but it is so easy to succeed with ordinary tools that such inven- 



OPPORTUNITIES FOR GR.\FTING IN CALIFORNIA 85 

tions have never come into wide use. Machines for the bench grafting 
of vines have, however, been successfully employed to a certain extent, 
but are not generally used. 

TIMES FOR GRAFTING IN CALIFORNIA 

There is nothing particularly new about the methods or means 
employed for grafting deciduous fruit trees in California, but the time 
at which the operation can be successfully done, and the condition of 
the scion, are different from those held to be necessary in other cli- 
mates. It is not at all requisite that the scions should be carefully 
stored away to keep them in a dormant condition, nor that the grafter 
should haste to do his work in just such a state of sap-flow in the spring 
time. It was early discovered that grafting could be successfully done 
with growing scions, and that scions could be cut from one tree and 
set in another nearly at any time the grafter desired. Grafting is 
therefore possible much later in the season than is prescribed elsewhere, 
and it is also possible to begin earlier. In one of the largest apple 
and pear orchards in the State it is common to graft in December. 
The absence of freezing weather saves the graft from injury. As our 
trees start their flow of sap early, and often when the ground is too 
wet for comfortable orchard work, it is the practice of many to get 
their grafting and pruning done before the heavy midwinter rains 
begin. The practice of most growers is, however, to conform some- 
what nearly to traditional methods, to do most of the grafting in the 
spring months, and to use dormant scions, the growth of which is 
retarded by heeling them in on the north side of a building, or keeping 
them in sand in the cellar, as the grower chooses. Of course it should 
be understood that there are parts of the State where the winter condi- 
tions are more nearly like those at the East, and practice has to conform 
to them. 

As to whether it is better to remove the whole top of the tree and 
graft all the limbs in one year, there is some diflference of opinion. The 
prevailing practice is to graft over part of the limbs one year and the 
balance the following year ; or else to leave part of the top to shade 
the bark and take part of the sap flow until the grafts start out well, 
and then cut it away. When a large amount of grafting is to be done, 
the limbs may be cut off during the weeks preceding grafting. In this 
case, the cut should be made a foot or two above the grafting point 
and a second cut be made at this point, when ready to put in the scions. 

Whenever old bark is exposed by cutting back for grafting, thorough 
protection against sunburn must be provided. The simplest way to do 
this is to cover the exposed bark with good whitewash. By using thirty 
pounds of lime, four pounds tallow, and five pounds of salt with enough 
water to make it flow well, a tenacious whitewash can be secured. 

What has been said thus far relates especially to the working over 
of old trees of common deciduous fruits. Though much the same 
method will succeed with some of the semi-tropical fruits and with nut 
trees, the discussion of their propagation and grafting over will be 
deferred to the chapters devoted to them, and this will also give oppor- 
tunity to describe methods especially adapted to these fruits. 



CHAPTER X 

PREPARATION FOR ORCHARD PLANTING 

The two essentials in preparing land for trees or vines are deep and 
thorough cultivation, and provision for drainage, unless the situation 
is naturally well drained. Drainage will be considered in connection 
with irrigation in another chapter. In this place, however, by way of 
emphasis, it may be remarked that high land is not necessarily well 
drained, although the general feature of the surface may be an incline, 
nor is low land necessarily wet, although the surface may be apparently 
level. For horticultural purposes the drainage of the land must be 
considered on the hillside as well as in the valley, for reasons which 
will be more fully set forth in the chapter on drainage. 

The preparation of land for fruit planting should begin with grad- 
ing. In irrigated orchards this is essential for the equal distribution 
of water. Even where irrigation is not anticipated, it is of decided 
advantage to smooth down hummocks and fill sags which are likely to 
collect water in the rainy season. As has been shown in Chapter III, 
this can be done on most California soils without danger of uncovering 
a sterile subsoil. Some intimation of the method of grading is given 
at the close of Chapter VII. In preparation for the irrigated orchard, 
and irrigation is now widely employed even in regions where formerly 
rainfall was the sole reliance, it is important that accurate grading 
should be done and the use of the surveyor's level and grade stakes 
will be found very desirable. All moving of soil should precede the 
general plowing. 

For the planting of orchard or vineyard the land must be put in as 
good tilth as possible, and extra expenditure to secure this will be 
amply repaid in the after-growth of the trees and vines. If practicable, 
it will be all the better to have the process of preparation begin a year 
before the trees or vines are to be set. This is true either with newly- 
cleared land, as has been described, or with old grain or pasture land 
which is to be used, leaving the surface rough during the winter, 
facilitates the access of air to the lower layers of the soil, and in a 
certain sense may be said to sweeten and enliven it. Following in the 
furrow with a subsoil plow is very desirable, either at the first plowing 
or later. Such treatment of old grain land breaks up the old hardpan,* 
which has probably been formed by years of shallow culture. The 
preparation should continue during the following summer, and can 
often be made both thorough and profitable by the growth of a summer 
"hoed crop," the culture of which will kill out many weeds and secure 
good pulverization of the soil. If no summer crop is grown, the land 
should be kept in cultivation by plowing the weeds under as long as 
the surface soil retains moisture enough to start them. A special 
advantage of such summer-fallow in regions where the rainfall is apt 

*In this connection the term means "plow-sole." Treatment of true hardpan will be 
described in the next chapter. 

86 



PREPARATIONS FOR PLANTING 87 

to be short is that a prevention of evaporation, the trees or vines set 
the followinc: winter will have a f^^ood part of the rainfall of two seasons 
to p^row with, and the result will often be very noticeable. If there 
are supplies of manure available, as is often found in old corrals on 
our p^rain or stock farms, it is better to feather and apply this the winter 
before the plantint^ of the trees. If this is not done, it should be left 
until after the trees are planted, and then be spread upon the surface 
durinc^ the winter, and plowed it after it has been in part leached into 
the soil by the rains. Application should be made evenly all over the 
surface, and not massed around the roots of the trees, unless it is to be 
applied as a mulch to the surface after the springy cultivation is over, as 
will be considered later. 

If it is thouo^ht desirable to plant the land immediately after break- 
ing up, put in the plows as farly in the fall as it is possible to do deep 
work, that is, to plow to a depth of ten or twelve inches, or more. 
Harrow thorouj^hly. If it is still early, cross-plow. Thorouo^h and 
deep brcakinsf up as soon as practicable to plow in the fall, and follow- 
injx in the furrow with the subsoil plow, working to a depth of fourteen 
inches or more, is a good preparation for fruit planting. For this kind 
of work good teams are needed and the plow should be sharp and 
bright. If the work is hard for the team, set the plow so as to take 
less land, but do not sacrifice the depth. Harrow again thoroughly, 
and the land is ready for the trees or vines. 

Avoiding Dead Furrows. — Unless dead furrows can be used to 
advantage for surface drainage in case of heavy rain-storms, it will 
be of decided convenience in laying ofif to have the field free from 
them. This can, of course, be secured by beginning the final plowing 
at a line in the center of the field, turning all furrows inwards. In this 
case, too, if a right-hand plow is used, the team will always turn on 
unplowed land, and thus avoid trampling upon and packing the loose 
soil. The slight ridge in the center of the field formed by the first 
two furrows can be easily leveled by a couple of back furrows, and 
when properly harrowed the field will be found smooth as a floor for 
staking out for planting. 



LAYING OUT FOR PLAXTIXG IN SQUARES 

It is very desirable, both for convenience in cultivation and for the 
beauty of the orchard, that the trees should stand in straight lines, 
and care should be taken to attain that end. Most orchards and vine- 
yards in this State are laid out in squares ; that is, the rows of trees 
or vines are all at right angles to each other, as shown in the accom- 
panying sketch. This is the simplest arrangement ; and by some of 
our largest planters is held to be the best. It is true that the trees are 
not equidistant from each other in all directions, and that, theoretical'y 
at least, there is a portion of the ground unused — supposing that the 
roots occupy a circle, as do the branches. Practically, however, it may 
be doubted whether thg hungry roots of well-grown trees or vines leave 
any portion of the soil unvisited. 



88 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

There are also forms of double squares and alternating squares 
available for planting at long distances, with growths between, which 
are ultimately to be cut out, or for vines between fruit trees. Such 
mixed planting is, however, but little practiced in California. 

VARIOUS WAYS OF MARKING FOR SQUARES 

Marking With a Plow. — This method was used in laying ofif 
some large orchards in the Sacramento Valley. A common two-horse 
turning plow is rigged with a "marker" — a light wooden bar extending 
at right angles from the beam, the bar being as long as the desired 
distance between the rows of trees. On the end of this bar a crosspiece 
is fastened perpendicularly, so that it scratches along on the surface of 
the ground. The line of the first furrow has to be designated by a flag 
stake, to which the plowman proceeds. When this is done, the team 
is turned and sent back along the next row, the location of which has 
been fixed by the marker, and so on for the length of the field, the 
marker being turned each time to indicate the next furrow. Following 
the same course the other way of the field leaves the trees to be planted 
at the intersection of the furrows. 

Measure and Sight. — Another method which is quite commonly 
used and answers a good purpose in small plantings is the combination 
of measure and sight. The sighting stakes are usually plasterers' laths 
pointed at one end and whitewashed to make them more visible to the 
eye. In the use of these it is necessary to measure the distances and 
locate the laths to mark the ends of the rows all around the field. Then 
locate a line of laths across the field each way through the center, these 
laths occupying places which the trees of these two central rows will 
fill. After these are in place, measurement can be dispensed with, and 
the job can be finished by sighting through. The man on the ends of 
the rows has three laths to sight by in each row, and the stake driver 
places the stakes as directed by the sighter. Good location can be done 
this way if a man has a good eye and patience enough. 

Marking Off With a Wire. — A measuring wire or chain is, per- 
haps, the best means for getting accurate location of trees or vines. 
It is used either for setting in squares or in other arrangement, as will 
be described presently. Measuring wires are made of annealed steel 
-wire about one-eighth of an inch in diameter. The length varies ac- 
cording to the wishes of the user. If it is desired to lay off the planta- 
tion in blocks of one acre, the wire should be two hundred and eight 
feet nine inches long, for that is approximately the length of one side 
of a square inclosing an acre of ground. But some use a wire as long 
as three hundred feet, when the acre measure is of no consequence ; and 
others, in smaller plantings, make the wire just the length of the piece 
they have in hand. At each end of the wire is fixed a strong iron ring 
about one and a half inches in diameter, to be slipped over stakes ; some 
use a larger ring, say three inches in diameter, because it is easier to 
handle in pulling taut. Along this wire, patches of solder are placed 
exactly at the distances desired between the rows of trees or vines, and 
to these places pieces of red cloth are sometimes fastened so that the 
points may be easily seen. Another style of measuring wire is made of 



LAYING-OUT METHODS ILLUSTRATED 



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Trees planted on the square system. The Triangular or alternate system. 



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The Hexagonal or Septuple system. 



The Qumcunx system. 



90 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

small wire cable about a quarter of an inch in diameter, made of several 
strands of small wire. It is more flexible and less likely to become 
kinked than the large wire, and can be easily marked off to represent 
the distances, at which rows of different kinds of trees should be placed, 
by separating the strands a little at the desired points and inserting a 
little piece of red cloth, pressing the wires together again and tying 
firmly with a waxed thread to prevent slipping. In this way the same 
wire can be easily arranged for planting vines or for the trees requiring 
the greatest distance between the rows. Another advantage of the 
cable is that any stretching can be taken up by retwisting, which can not 
be done with the stretching of a single wire. Another good style of 
planting wire is made of 2, 4 or 6-foot links of No. 12 steel wire (in- 
cluding the diameters or the small rings turned at each end of the link 
pieces). /Vs all planting will probably be at multiple distances of these 
link-lengths, the cloth tags can be changed and the chain thus be marked 
for any desired distances. 

Finding a True Corner. — To use the measuring wire for laying 
out trees on the square, it is necessary first to get one corner true, and 
then a field of any size can be marked out accurately. Select the side of 
the field which is to serve as the base of the square and stretch the wire 
along that, say fifteen feet from the fence, which will give room enough 
to turn with the team in cultivation or to drive along in picking-time. 
When the wire is thus stretched parallel with the boundary of the 
field, place a stake at each of the distance tags on the wire, and these 
stakes will represent the first row of trees or vines. To find a square 
corner, begin at the starting point and measure off sixty feet long 
this row with a tape line, and put a temporary stake, then from the 
starting point measure off eighty feet as nearly at a right angle with 
the first line as can be judged with the eye, and run diagonally from 
this point the temporary sixty-foot stake. If the distance between 
these stakes is one hundred feet, then the corner is a right angle. 
Now, having the outside lines started at right angles to each other, one 
can proceed with the measuring wire and lay off as large an area as he 
desires, if care is taken to have each line drawn parallel with the last, 
and all stakes accurately placed with the tags on the wire — providing 
the land is nearly level or on a uniform grade. In locating trees over 
uneven ground, the measurements will have to be made from tree to 
tree, with the tape line held as nearly to a level as possible. 

Rows on Hillsides. — Laying off orchard or vineyard on hillside 
too steep to plow both ways, there is advantage sometimes in placing 
the rows up and down the hill nearly twice as far apart as the rows 
along the face of the hill : In planting trees thus the advantage to 
be gained is by enabling you to keep the team well up the hill ; thereby 
you are able to plow or cultivate the trees close on the lower side of 
the rows. There is no difficulty in cultivating the upper side of the 
rows, for the plow or harrow is always below the team. If trees are 
planted as recommended, the team can be guided up the hill a little 
between the rows, then allowed to drop downhill one step, and thus 
one can cultivate the trees close on the lower side. The same rule will 
apply to vines. 



LAYING OUT THE ORCHARD 91 

QUINCUNX PLANTING 

There is much confusion in the use of this term in this State. It 
is, in fact, made to cover ahnost every kind of arrangement which is 
not on the square. Webster defines the term to mean "the arrangement 
of things, especially of trees, by five in a square, one being placed in 
the middle of a square." Trees set in quincunx would stand as shown 
in the accompanying diagram. To locate them in this form it is only 
necessary to proceed as already described for planting in squares, by 
fixing upon the base line and locating two side lines to it at right 
angles. Place the stakes on these two lines just half the distance 
desired between the trees, and have the measuring wire long enough 
to reach across from one line to the other. Near one end of the wire 
place another mark just half way between the end and the first tree 
mark; that is, if the trees are to be twenty-four feet apart in the 
squares, this additional mark should be twelve feet from the end of 
the wire. Now set the first row with the end of the wire at the corner 
stake, and set stakes at each twenty-four foot mark. 

Proceed now to the first half-way stake, and instead of putting the 
end of the wire at this stake, put the twelve-foot mark there. Put 
stakes now at each twenty-four foot mark again to locate the trees 
in that row. In the next row put the end of the wire at the first stake 
and proceed as in the first row. Thereafter using the end of the wire 
and the twelve-foot marks alternately, the stakes will be set in quincunx 
all over the field. If the midway stakes are now pulled out along the 
two side lines, the remaining stakes show where the trees are to be 
placed. This way of planting locates about 78 per cent more trees 
upon any given area, but it brings the trees at irregular distances 
from each other, and except in furnishing a way to arrange an orchard 
with permanent and temporary trees, there does not seem to be any 
advantage in it. 

PLANTING IN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLES 

This is the arrangement generally implied when the term "quin- 
cunx" is wrongly cmjiloyed. By it the trees are all equally distant from 
each other, and thus the ground divided as equally as possible. The 
arrangement admits 15 per cent more trees to the acre than the setting 
in squares, and the ground can be worked in three different directions. 
This arrangement also gives better facilities for irrigation. Objections 
are urged to it, however, in that it does not admit of thinning trees 
by removal of alternate rows, as is sometimes desirable, and that one 
has to take a zigzag course in driving through the orchard. 

Hexagonal planting places the trees as shown in the accompanying 
sketch. 

It is termed hexagonal because, as the figure consists of six trees 
inclosing a seventh, a line drawn through the encompassing trees 
make a hexagon. It is also called septuple planting, because seven 
trees enter into its figure. 

An orchard can be* laid out in hexagonals by using the measuring 
wire as described for quincunx planting with the distance and half- 



92 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 



distance marks, except that the guide stakes in the side rows must be 
placed at different distances apart. The following table, showing the 
distance for side stakes to reach desired distance between the trees, and 
the method of calculating the number of trees to the acre by the square 
and hexagonal or sextuple arrangement : 

Trees set Septuple Check-stakes should be 

10 feet apart 8 feet 8 inches. 

12 feet apart 10 feet 4 2-5 inches. 

14 feet apart 12 feet % inches. 

16 feet apart 13 feet 10% inches. 

18 feet apart 15 feet 7 inches. 

20 feet apart 17 feet 4 inches. 

21 feet apart 18 feet 2^/2 inches. 

22 feet apart 19 feet % inches. 

24 feet apart 20 feet 9^2 inches. 



After the field is staked, each alternate stake in the check rows should be 
removed. The following table will show the number of trtes to the acre by 
the square and septuple system : 

Square Septula 

10 feet apart 435 500 

12 feet apart 302 347 

14 feet apart 222 255 

16 feet apart 170 195 

18 feet apart 134 154 

20 feet apart 109 125 

21 feet apart 99 114 

22 feet apart 90 103 

24 feet apart 75 86 

For any distance not given in the above table, calculate the number of trees 
to the acre by the square system, and add fifteen per cent. This will give the 
number if planted septuple. 

Laying Out Hexagonals With a Triangle. — It is possible to lay 
out an orchard in hexagonal form by working from stake to stake with 
an equilateral triangle of dimensions equaling the distance required 
between the trees. 




One comer of triangle — all being made alike. 



LAYING OUT WITH TRIANGLE 93 

Take three strips of one-by-two-inch dry pine or redwood, and as long as 
you wish the distance between the trees. Cut the strips the same length, and 
fasten the corners of the triangle firmly together by nailing two pieces of pine 
board six by six inches. 

If the long strips are set v<^ edgewise, the triangle will be much stiff cr and 
better to carry. Through the corner boards bore an inch hole, making sure that 
the three sides of the triangle measure exactly the same. If they do, the 
triangle must necessarily be perfect. Then brace it a little by nailing a lath 
across each corner, and it is rcadv for use. 

Now split out some thrce-quartcr-inch pins, one foot long, from good, straight- 
grained redwood. Make one hundred pins for each acre you have to lay off. 

Three persons must now carry the triangle, beginning on one side of the field, 

say eight feet from the fence, and guided the first time through by a line of 

stakes. Carry the triangle with its side to the line of guide stakes and its point 

in. The head man and the inside man will stick pins, while the rear man will 

lip his corner each time upon the pin set by the head man. 

After the first time across, the man at the inside point of the triangle alone 
will set pins, while the other two fit their corners upon the pins in the last row 
set. Thus one row of pins only is set each time you go across the field. 

If the triangle is exact, and the first row of pins is set perfectly straight, and 
the pins are always set perpendicularly, everything will now work like a charm 
and the job will be perfect; and it is so simple and easy that a man and two 
small boys can lay off from five to ten acres in one day. Remember that no 
guide stakes are used anywhere after the first time through. 

The Triangle on Hillside. — The use of the triangle requires a 
little nicety in "leveling up" where the piece i.s hilly. By using a 
plumb-line at two corners of the triangle, the third corner resting on 
one of the stakes, leveling the triangle and bringing one of the plumb- 
lines over another stake already set, the position of the other line would 
determine the position of the next stake. This method has worked 
fairly well, even in places where the slope was sufficient to give a fall 
of six feet between the trees, which were set twenty feet apart. 

Locating in Triangles With a Chain. — Instead of a wooden 
triangle, a chain has been used in this way : 

First stretch a chain along one side of the ground, setting by it the first row 
of stakes. This forms the base line. Have a piece of chain just twice the length 
of the established distance between trees, with ample rings on the ends and a 
joint in the middle. Put one of the rings over the first stake and the other 
over the second stake. Then take the joint in the middle of the chain and 
stretch it out reasonably tight. The wire forms a letter V, at the focus of which 
stick a stake. The point is indicated with precision by the joint in the middle 
of the chain. Then take the ring off the first stake and put it over the third 
stake, leaving the one on the second stake where it is. Tighten the chain again, 
and another point is fixed. Thus continue all the base line, shifting the rings 
alternately, turning over the chain as one turns a pair of draughtsman's compasses 
in his hand when spacing off a line. The second row of stakes being set, set the 
third row, and so on through the ground. 

The suggestions given in this chapter should indicate ways enough 
to lay off orchard and vineyard ground to answer all needs, though 
there are other good ways not mentioned. It is hoped that the instruc- 
tions will not be regarded as to explicit. They are intended for the 
guidance of the inexperienced planter, and will naturally seem laden 
with detail to those who have become familiar with the operations by 
repeated practice. 



CHAPTER XI 

PLANTING THE TREES 

After the field has been graded, thoroughly tilled and carefully laid 
off as has been described, the next step is digging the holes for the 
trees. "How large shall the holes be?" He was a wise fruit grower 
who, when asked this question, replied, "As large as the field." That 
is to say, it is much better to work the whole ground over deeply than 
to trust to deep holes and shallow working elsewhere. Where this 
is done, the tree holes need only be large enough and deep enough to 
receive the roots without folding them in or cramping them up. In a 
loose, deep soil, however, one can dig extra deep and broad holes if he 
desires, and will be repaid by extra growth of the tree ; but in a close, 
tenacious soil a deep hole is not only undesirable, but often positively 
a danger to the tree unless drainage of the holes is provided artificially. 
Such holes hold water like a tub, and the loosening of the soil deeply 
facilitates its gathering in the hole. Many have found their trees in 
such places dwindling and dying because their roots were soaking in 
water. 

Planting on Some Shallow Soils. — As a rule, trees should have 
a deep soil, and for these deep, free loams, California is famous, but 
there are situations where very satisfactory growth and production can 
be had, even when the hardpan is near the surface and the soil would 
be called shallow. In such places it is the character of the subsoil 
which warrants the tree and vine planter in making use of them. Some- 
times the hardpan is so thin and near the surface that it can be broken 
through with a pick in digging the tree hole. Otherwise boring is done. 
It is about forty years since Mr. James Rutter, of Florin (on the "bed- 
rock" lands near Sacramento), first noticed that there were vines here 
and there which grew exceptionally well and bore large crops of fine 
fruit. He found by investigation that under these vines there were 
crevices in the bedrock, and from this he took the hint to bore through 
this hardpan in the bottom of the hole where he placed the tree, and in 
this way he gained access for the roots to the subsoil and egress for 
the water through the permeable substratum. He bored a hole two 
inches in diameter into or through the bedrock and rammed well into it 
one and a half pounds of black blasting powder. After exploding this, 
he sometimes bored a three-inch hole about four feet below the blast. In- 
stead of blasting in the whole where the tree is to be planted, some bore 
and blast in the hardpan midway between the rows, placing the holes 
at "quincunx" with the trees. The shattering of the hardpan between 
the trees is said to be practicable after the trees are growing, and may 
in certain soils relieve trees which are suffering for lack of drainage. 
A half-pound cartridge of dynamite has been successfully used for 
subsoil blasting, and some have reported in favor of exploding a quarter- 
pound cartridge quite near to a tree sufifering from standing water, 
putting in the charge during the dry season. 

94 



BLASTING HOLES FOR TREES 95 

There are many situations where such practice would be beneficial, 
and in some cases mere digging or boring through the impervious 
stratum avails much. There are spots where "lava crusts" overlie 
gravel, and trees have been well grown by cutting holes through the lava 
to the gravel, filling with good soil and planting the trees in these holes. 
Their roots penetrate to the gravel stratum and obtain abundant moist- 
ure and nutriment. In certain situations where a shallow layer of soil 
overlies a heavy clay, trees have been blown over, but when a cut has 
been made through the clay, the trees have rooted deeply and have 
withstood the winds. 

Shooting Holes for Trees. — Even where there are continuous 
depths of dense strata, and not shallow hardpan underlaid by free 
soils, trees can often be successfully grown by the use of high explosives. 
In his book on "Soils," Professor Hilgard gives these suggestions : 

A permanent loosening of dense sub-strata is best accomplished by moderate 
charges (14 to -14 lb.) of No. 2 dynamite at a sufficient depth (3 to 5 ft.). 
The shattering effect of the explosure will be sensible to a depth of eight feet or 
more, and will fissure the clay or hardpan to a corresponding extent sidewise. 
If properb' proportioned the charge will hardly disturb the surface ; or will throw 
out sufficient earth to plant the tree without further digging. \Vhere labor is 
high priced this proves the cheapest as well as the best way to prepare such 
ground for tree planting, and it has often been found that in course of time the 
loosening begun by the powder has extended through the mass of the land so as 
to permit the roots to utilize it fully and even to permit, in after years, of the 
planting of field crops where formerly they would not succeed. 

Upon the basis of these pioneer demonstrations, California claims 
priority in the now widely prevalent "dynamite farming." The most 
minute descriptions of approved methods are now available in the pub- 
lications of the powder manufacturers and their traveling demonstra- 
tors give field instructions in materials and appliances to those who 
ask for them. 

It is still a question, however, how for commercial plantings of 
trees and vines on such defective soils should be undertaken while there 
is plenty of good, deep land to be had. 

Digging the Holes. — Holes for tree planting may be dug at a 
leisure time after the laying ofif of the field, even though it is not 
designed to plant the trees immediately, but our largest planters do 
not approve the practice. In such cases the sides of the holes should 
always be freshly pared off before the trees are put in, because the 
rain and sunshine are apt to cement the sides. In digging holes the 
surface earth should always be thrown to one side and the lower 
soil on another. The object of this is to have the top soil to place 
in direct contact wnth the roots when the tree is planted, the lower 
soil being used to fill up the hole with. 

TREE SETTERS 

No matter how carefully the stakes are placed in laying ofif the 
orchard, the trees will not easily come in line unless some handy de- 
vice is used for bringing the stem just in the place occupied by the 
stake which was thrown out in digging. These devices are called 



96 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

"tree-setters," and there are a number of designs. Two are given, 
either of which will give good results. Take a piece of board one 
inch thick, four inches wide, and five feet long; bore an inch hole in 
the center, and one at each end at equal distance from the center; 
then cut a piece from one side of the board, marked by a square, the 
corner resting in the middle of the center hole. Make two stakes, 
each one foot long, that will easily pass through the end holes. Place 
the center of this board against the stake, where the tree is to be 

JQ /X ol 

Bar for Tree Setting 

planted; push the stakes into the ground through the holes in the 
ends, then lift the board from position and proceed to dig the hole. 
When dug, replace the board over the end stakes in its former position, 
then plant the tree with its trunk resting against the center notch in 
the board, and you have it in just the right place. 

Another setter is in the form of a triangle: Take three pieces of 
plain one-inch stuff three to four inches wide and four feet long, 
and nail them together, forming a three-cornered frame, letting the 
ends project sufficiently to form a corner, as shown in the drawing. 
Next make a couple of smooth, hard stakes, well sharpened, and 
about a foot or sixteen inches in length. When you are ready to set 
your trees, place the frame flat upon the ground with one corner 
firmly and fairly against the stake which marks the place where the 




Triangular tree setter. 



tree is to stand. Now in the other two corners stick the stakes al- 
ready prepared for the purpose. This done, pull up the stake against 
which the frame was first placed — the one indicating a place for a 
tree — remove the frame, being careful in doing so not to move the 
other two stakes, which must be left to be used while setting the 
tree. After the hole is dug and everything ready for setting the tree, 
again place the frame against the two standing stakes, let the tree 
drop into the other corner, which will help support it while the dirt 



CHOOSING TREES FOR PLANTING 97 

is bcinp: placed about the roots ; and this will bring the tree exactly 
where the stake was originally. If the stakes are properly put in line, 
so will bq the trees. 

These setters are described as they are used when the hole is dug 
and the tree set at the same time. Such is the ordinary practice in 
planting. If one wishes to dig the holes beforehand, it is necessary 
to furnish more stakes, as two have to be left beside each hole to mark 
the position of the setter when the planting is done. Besides its use 
in bringing a tree into line, the tree setter enables one to judge of 
the depth of setting as compared with the surface of the surrounding 
ground. It is not easy to determine this with the eye if the hole be a 
large one. Where the measuring wire is used to set the stakes, it 
is sometimes stretched across again after the holes are dug, the tags 
on the wire thus indicating the places for the trees of the whole row. 
The trouble with this practice is the bother of having the wire in the 
way while filling and tramping the earth around the roots. 



SELECTING TREES 

In the inirchase of trees it is well to patronize nurserymen in your 
own district. i)roviding they are honest and intelligent men, who keep 
themselves informed as they should about their business. The advice 
of such a local nurseryman is often of great value to the newcomer, 
for he will know by his experience and observation much about the 
adaptations of fruits and varieties thereof to the region. If, for any 
reason, local nurseries do not meet your needs, seek some well-estab- 
lished nursery at a distance. It is much safer to deal directly with 
the grower of the trees than to patronize traveling agents. Where, 
however, these agents are the accredited representatives of well-known 
establishments, they may save the planter time and trouble by taking 
his order for him. So-called "tree-peddlers," who are jobbers in 
trees and in too many cases send you refuse trees which they pick up 
cheap wherever they can, and label them to suit, without respect to 
truth or honesty, should be resolutely avoided, no matter what in- 
ducements or blandishments they may ofifer. 

The California legislature of 1907 passed a law making it unlaw- 
ful to sell fruit trees representing them to be a certain kind and 
afterwards to deliver trees of a different kind. To do this is a mis- 
demeanor punishable by fine and imprisonment. Action may be begun 
at any time within seven years after the date of delivery of such trees.* 

It is desirable, if possible, to visit the nursery and see the stock 
which is to be furnished. The trees should have a good healthy look, 
with clean bark, and of size enough to indicate a good, free growth. 
The matter of size is not the only point to consider, for size of the 
top is not so desirable as well-matured wood and plenty of roots. 
Stunted trees are not, as a rule, worth planting. There are cases, 
however, in which, by extra cultivation in good soil, fine trees have 
been grown even from "gulls" from the nursery. The best rule is to 

•Statutes and amendments to the Codes, 1907; chapter 229. 



98 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

select trees of good medium size, straight and healthy. During the 
digging season, ask to see samples of the roots as well as the tops, 
and do not purchase trees unless the roots are healthy looking and free 
from knots or excrescences. Gnarly and knotty roots in the young 
tree are a sure sign of insect pests or of unhealthy growth, and plant- 
ing such trees has occasioned immense loss. Many have been led 
into purchasing poor trees because they may be had cheap. A tree 
selected merely because it is cheap may prove the most expensive 
thing a man can put in the ground. 

Guarding Against Insects. — The top of the tree should be care- 
fully examined to discover scale insects if there be any. For this 
purpose a hand-magnifier should be used. Such a glass should always 
be in the fruit grower's pocket. One can be bought at any optician's 
for a dollar or two, which will fold into its case so as to be carried 
without scratching. Our nurserymen, by forsaking old infested loca- 
tions and obtaining new ground, now sell much cleaner trees than 
they did years ago. But still it is well to be always on the watch for 
pests. Disinfection of nursery stock is now officially provided. De- 
tails of treatment will be given in the chapter on injurious insects. 

TAKING TREES FROM THE NURSERY 

Trees should be carefully taken from the nursery rows, so as to 
obtain a good amount of small branching roots. In lifting from the 
home nursery, digging with well-sharpened spades, which will sever 
the long roots cleanly, is perhaps the best method. In the large 
nurseries tree diggers are generally used. They have two revolving 
coulters which cut through the surface soil each side of the trees, and 
a sharp, curved blade, which is drawn through the ground under the 
trees, loosening the soil and severing the long roots cleanly. The 
tree is then easily lifted, and has generally a much better root system 
than by the old style of "plowing out," which broke off so many of 
the small roots and lacerated the larger ones. Whether the tap root 
should be retained or not is not worth discussing on theoretical 
grounds. As a matter of fact and practice, the tap root cuts no figure 
at all in California orchard planting, although the discussion of the 
question was formerly very warm in this State, and is still occasion- 
ally heard. It is important, however, that the planter should have 
as many small lateral roots as he can get. The small fibrous roots 
are usually of little account, as they seldom survive transplanting, 
and it is better to clip them away, if the time can be afforded, as they 
often prevent the proper close contact of the soil with the larger roots. 
Cutting back all roots to short stubs at the base of the stem has suc- 
ceeded in some instances in California on moist lowlands, but longer 
roots are far safer in the deep drying of the surface layer which is to 
be expected in this State. 

The roots, after lifting, should not be permitted to dry. Hence, 
in hauling from the nursery to the farm, the trees should be well 
covered with wet straw and old sacks, or, if shipped from the nursery 
to distant points, should be well packed. The best way to pack trees 



CARE OF TREES BOFORE PLANTING 99 

is, undoubtedly, to box them in with wet straw, but it costa less and 
they usually carry well considerable distances if carefully bundled 
with tules (dry reed stems), the roots packed in wet straw, and the 
packing and covering bound down tight with ropes to prevent drying 
out. 

Attention should be paid to hauling away trees from the railway 
stations as soon as possible after arrival. It is not uncommon for 
shipments to lie on the station platforms for days, often when a des- 
iccating north wind is blowing. Such treatment soon takes the life 
out of the trees, and often, no doubt, the nurseryman is blamed for 
failure of treesAvhich have suffered some such neglect as this, either 
from transportation companies or from the purchasers. 

Heeling In. — On arrival at the farms, trees should be "heeled in" 
as soon as possible; even if it is the intention to plant at once, heel 
them in just the same, for delays arise often in the most unexpected 
manner. To heel in, dig a trench or plow a deep furrow, or a double 
furrow, in light, moist, but well-drained soil ; put in the trees singly 
side by side, removing all the packing material carefully from the 
roots, laying the tops all one way, and then shovel the earth over 
the roots until they are well covered with loose soil, and be sure that 
the soil sifts down well between the roots. Ordinarily this treatment 
will hold the trees in good condition for a considerable time if need 
be. If, however, they have become dry before arrival, the bundles 
should be thoroughly drenched with water before heeling in. In 
extreme cases, where the top shows drying by shrinking and shrivel- 
ing of the bark, the trees should be drenched, and then they should 
be covered root and top with earth for two or three days, when, if the 
trouble has not gone too far, the, bark will recover its smoothness and 
plumpness. It should be very" seldom, however, that a lot of trees is 
allowed to get into such condition by neglect. In heeling in it will 
be found a great convenience and a safeguard against possible con- 
fusion by loss of labels, if each variety as taken from the packing is 
placed by itself in the trench. Nurserymen generally attach a label 
to each small bundle, if the trees are of several varieties, and the 
novice is apt to lose all track of his sorts when heeling in the trench, 
unless he heels in each kind by itself, leaving the nurseryman's label 
to mark the whole lot of each kind. 

If the planter has his own ideas of after-treatment of his trees, 
or if he is a beginner and desires to adopt the suggestions which will 
be laid down in this book, he should insist that the nurseryman shall 
not trim up or cut back the trees before packing. Have the trees 
packed just as they are lifted from the ground. The work towards 
the shaping of the tree should be done after it is planted in the 
orchard. 

PLANTING THE ORCHARD 

The young deciduous tree should be dormant before being re- 
moved from the nufsery row, and if its leaves have fallen it is good 
evidence of its dormancy. Such, however, is the effect of the climate 



100 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

of California, more apparent in some years than others, and with 
some kinds of frviit than others, and the young tree retains a small 
part of its activity very late, and in such cases it is not practicable to 
wait for the complete falling of the .leaves. Sometimes for convenience 
of work, the trees have to be lifted before this takes place, and in 
such case it is desirable to remove the leaves to lessen evaporation. 
It is probably better to transplant in this condition for the sake of 
early setting in its new position than to wait for all the leaves to 
drop. This statement is not intended to include nursery stock which 
is kept growing late in the season by late irrigation. Such trees are 
not always desirable. 

Time to Plant. — The best time to plant deciduous trees in Cali- 
fornia is soon after the early rains have deeply moistened the ground. 
It is not desirable, however, to have a stratum of dry earth below. 
This can be removed by irrigation when available. Early planting 
of common orchard fruits is of advantage for several reasons. First, 
an early-planted tree gets the full benefit of the season's rainfall, 
whatever it may be, and a late-planted tree, in a year with short rain- 
fall, is apt to suffer during its first season's growth, unless it can be 
irrigated. The two main things to observe are the dormancy of the 
tree and the proper condition of the soil, and both of these are most 
apt to coincide in many parts of California about the first of Janu- 
ary, but in heavy loams in region of large rainfall, the soil may 
then be too cold and wet. There will, however, be some variation 
from year to year, and different parts of the State disagree as to the 
date. Hence, the general rule must be based on conditions, that 
of the tree and that of the soil. If the novice can not judge these 
for himself, he must get the advice of some one of experience in the 
locality. 

The dormant period of a tree in California, as has been stated in 
another connection, is very short. As many cold-climate annual plants 
become perennial here, so our deciduous trees, in comparatively frost- 
less portions of the State, evince a tendency to become evergreen. 
The period of dormancy in the root is also shorter than the inactivity 
of the top. Trees transplanted early are found to have their root 
wounds calloused over and new rootlets considerably advanced before 
the buds swell. Therefore, by early planting the tree begins soon 
to take hold upon the soil, the latter being well settled around it by 
rains, which often follow early planting, and the high winds, which 
are apt to come in the spring in some parts of the State, find the tree 
well anchored and ready to maintain itself. 

Again, the proper condition of soil, if not seized at its first coming, 
may not recur until after the great storms of the winter are over, 
say in February or March (in most parts of the State), and then often 
the buds are bursting into bloom and leaf. Planting when the soil is 
water-soaked and cold is very undesirable, for in such condition it 
cannot be properly disposed about the roots, the inactive roots may 
begin to decay, and trees moved at this period are apt to show their 
dislike of the treatment. If the work has been delayed unavoidably, 
so that early planting cannot be done, it is better to keep the trees 



HOW TO PLANT FRUIT TREES 101 

heeled in until the proper soil condition returns, even if it be rather 
late, for a little extra attention to cultivation for retention of moisure 
will pull throuo^h a late-planted tree. 

These remarks are of very wide application in this State, but there 
arc exceptions. In our hig^h altitudes, where the climate approaches 
Eastern conditions in cold and snowfall, practice in planting will also 
approximate Eastern methods. In regions of very heavy rainfall and 
on the upper coast where the rainy season and moisture from fogs 
are prolonged late in the spring, late planting is safer and surer than 
in the warmer, drier parts of the State. 

Another consideration, too, is the slope of the land to be planted. 
Our hillside fruit growers in regions of heavy winter storms some- 
times plant slopes, which, if plowed deep in the fall, are apt to wash 
badly during the heavy winter rains. On such slopes it is better to 
plow late in the winter, after the heavy storms are over, and plant 
when the soil has become warm and mellow. 



Tin-: Oi'l'lRATIUX OF PLANTING 

Tree planting should be carefully and well done, but it need not 
necessarily be slowly done. With a kind soil deeply worked and 
just in the right condition for planting, trees may be put in well and 
rapidly. Two men work together at a decided advantage. Using 
the straight "tree-setter," which has already been described, one 
takes each end, and as soon as the center notch encloses the tree 
stake, the setter stakes are pushed into the soil, the "setter" is laid 
aside, and the two men, taking up their shovels or spades, begin first 
around the outside of the hole, throwing all the surface dirt 
on the same side of the hole and leaving the tree stake to be thrown 
out last, because its remaining serves to center the hole. The lower 
soil is now thrown to the other side of the hole, and when depth 
enough is reached, the soil at the bottom of the hole is loosened 
up to the depth of a shovel thrust, without removing it from the hole. 
A shovelful or two of the surface soil is thrown into the center of 
the hole, being allowed to remain higher in the center, because this 
generally furnishes a cushion about the natural shape of the under 
surface of the root system of the tree. Now replace the tree-setter 
upon its end pegs, let one man hold the tree with its stem in the central 
notch in the setter, and while the other man shovels in the surface earth 
rather slowly at first, the man who holds the tree with one hand will 
spread out the roots, pulverize and pack the earth around them, being 
sure that no cavities are left under any of the roots, but that their 
surfaces everywhere come into contact with the soil, and that they 
spread out as widely as possible. The earth is being continuously 
put in by the shovcler, and when the roots are covered the planter 
steps in the hole and carefully firms the soil down upon the roots by 
tramping (especially at the cut ends of the roots around the outer 
side of the hole), at the same time judging of the perpendicularity of 
the tree with his ey^. When this is done, both men use their shovels 
and fill up the hole with the earth taken from below, being sure to leave 



102 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

the last few inches at the surface pulverized, but untramped, unless 
the soil be very light so that tramping will not overpack it. Some one 
said long ago that one should not plant a tree as he does a post, 
ramming down the earth to the very top of the hole. Many trees are 
doubtless ruined by over zeal in this respect. 

The shovel has been mentioned frequently as the tool to be used 
in planting. Where the soil is deeply plowed, well worked, and free 
from stone, the shovel is the most rapid tool. Under other conditions 
the long-handled spade, and in some cases the long-handled spading 
fork, serves admirably in loosening the soil at the bottom of the holes 
and in breaking up lumps while filling in. One man with a shovel or 
spade, and the other with the fork, make a good combination in this 
respect. 

Planting in a Furrow. — A practice which has been largely fol- 
lowed in the Sacramento Valley and which attains greatest speed and 
cheapness consists in laying off as described in the preceding chapter, 
and then proceeding with a heavy listing plow, followed by a subsoil 
plow in the same furrow. The trees are then rapidly set with the 
least digging. This is all done before the field is plowed. Plowing 
immediately follows planting. The advantages of this method are 
ease of work on firm ground instead of a plowed surface, and escape 
of injury to this surface by men and teams in planting after plowing. 
It does not, however, prepare the land so well as deep working before 
laying out. 

RANDOM SUGGESTIONS 

The roots of every tree should be examined before planting. All 
large root ends should have a fresh, clean cut with a sharp knife or 
shears. Make a slanting cut with the cut surface on the underside 
of the root. Where a root is mangled or bruised, it should in most 
cases be cut back to a sound place. 

The wound made by the cutting away of the seedling stock above 
the bud should be at the north or northeast, in order that this weak 
point may be shaded as much as possible from the afternoon sun. 

If the roots of young trees grow more to one side than the other, 
place the strongest roots toward the prevailing wind. 

The use of water to settle the earth around the roots is sometimes 
desirable in sections where the rainfall is light or uncertain. Pour in 
four or five gallons from the water wagon after the hand work in 
spreading the roots and in pressing the soil under and around them 
has been done and the hole partly filled. When the water has soaked 
away, fill the hole with fine earth without tramping. In irrigated dis- 
tricts leading the water along the line of trees in a furrow to settle 
the ground at planting is a good practice. It is almost essential in the 
planting of evergreen trees which are best moved during the dry 
season. In early planting in parts of the State where the rainfall is 
abundant, there may be no need of water-settling; puddling the roots, 
or dipping them in thin mud and planting them with this mud adher- 
ing, is governed by much the same conditions as water-settling; it may 



MANURE IN TREE PLANTIXG 103 

insure growth of the tree when otherwise it might be seriously injured 
by drouth. With puddled roots especial care should also be taken to 
leave the surface loose to prevent evaporation. In making puddle, 
use loamy soil and never adobe, for in dry time the latter will bake 
around the roots and may kill the tree. 

The Use of Manure. — Never put manure in the hole with the 
tree. Sometimes the injunction is, Never put anything but well rotted 
manure in the hole. It is better to put in none of any kind. Manure 
should be spread upon the ground after planting. The rains then leach 
it out and it may be turned under in the spring plowing. There are, 
however, light soils in the drier parts of the State where turning under 
manure in the spring is a disadvantage, as it makes the soil too porous 
and facilitates evaporation. On such soils, extra care should be taken 
to have the manure thoroughly decomposed by composting, as will 
be described in the chapter on fertilizers, and all applications should be 
made either late in the spring to act as a mulch in the summer, or if a 
mulch is not thought desirable, apply the manure in the fall before the 
first rains, so that it may be turned under at the first plowing and have 
the whole winter for disintegration. In this dry climate there is often 
misapprehension, especially among newcomers, as to what is well- 
rotted manure. They take the scrapings of the corral, which have been 
trampled and pulverized, but which, having been kept dry. have never 
rotted. When this is put in the holes with the tree and then moistened 
by rainfall or irrigation, it will burn the tree, the first sign of injury 
being the drying up of the leaves. It is, on the whole, safest and best 
to put nothing but well-pulvcrized surface soil around the roots of the 
young tree. 

Depth of Planting. — The depth to which trees should be set has 
always been a matter of discord among the planters. The safest rule 
under ordinary circumstances is to get the tree as nearly as possible 
the same depth it stood in the nursery row ; that is, so as to have" it 
stand that way when the ground has settled, or the surface returned by 
cultivation to its normal level. In planting in loose soil in the drier 
parts of the State, it is often desirable to plant rather low, because 
several inches depth of the surface soil become dry. and the roots should 
be well in the moist layer. But if irrigation is to be practised, it must 
be remembered that the water level will rise when the soil is saturated 
and deep-planted trees are apt to suffer. The experience of recent 
years is decidedly against deep planting, which used to be advised 
because of our dry climate. Thousands of trees have been ruined by 
planting too deep except in light sandy soil. 

Speed in Planting. — On good soil, well prepared, trees can be 
put in rapidly and the job still be well done. It is reported that on one 
occasion, in planting almonds, twenty men finished sixty-four acres 
from Friday noon to Wednesday night, placing the stakes, digging the 
holes, and planting the trees. This would be almost three-quarters of 
an acre per day per man. In planting peaches and apricots an average 
of one hundred trees |ier day to the man has been attained. On the 
mellow loam, in another case, the average wn*^ one hundred and twenty- 



104 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

five trees to the man, digging holes two feet square in land which had 
been plowed twelve inches deep. Such work is only possible on good 
soil, well prepared, and by men who work well together. 

Mapping and Labeling. — Where mixed varieties of fruit are 
planted, the orchard should be mapped as soon as the trees are set. A 
good durable map is made of the glazed muslin, such as carpenters and 
architects use for their drawings. The map can be easily drawn to a 
scale by using a fraction of an inch to represent a foot. After the map 
is made, it can be rolled on a broom stick and easily preserved. With 
such a record, the grower need not care what becomes of the labels, 
as he can locate a variety at any time by its row and tree number. If, 
however, one desires labels, let them be made in this way: Take a 
piece of common sheet zinc five inches wide. Across this, cut pieces 
three-quarters of an inch wide at one end and tapering to a point at 
the other. Near the wider end write plainly with a common lead-pencil 
the name of the variety. This will get brighter by exposure to the 
weather. The small end may be coiled around the branch of the tree ; it 
will yield as the tree grows and will do no injury. Such labels will last 
for a long time. Labels attached by a cord or wire should be removed 
as soon as the trees are set, for they are apt to be forgotten and the 
tree seriously injured by the cutting in of the ligature. Even when 
labels are used the map is the only surety, because any kind of a label 
is apt to be lost by accident or through malice or mischief of intruders. 

Mulching. — Although early planted trees on deep soils in re- 
gions of sufficient rainfall need only good cultivation, after planting, 
there are cases in which mulching is desirable. Various light mate- 
rials may be used for a mulch, but nothing is better than well-rotted 
straw, in which fermentation has killed all weed seed. Apply it to a 
distance of two feet around the tree, and to a depth of not less than six 
inches. It is best done as soon as the tree is planted, and is to be 
especially recommended when late planting is practiced. Even in lo- 
calities of light rainfall, if the trees are well mulched early in the winter, 
irrigation may be unnecessary for the young deciduous tree. Trees 
planted very late in the spring may, by using great care and mulching 
well, make as great a growth as those set out early in winter. This 
should not be an excuse for late planting, but where late planting is 
necessary, mulching will help the trees to pull through. It is a far 
easier way of keeping the ground moist than by irrigating, but is not 
a substitute for it where systematic irrigation is necessary, though irri- 
gation may often be lessened, and in some cases obviated, by extra cul- 
tivation or mulching, at least until the trees come into bearing. 

Guarding Against Sunburn. — Newly-set trees should be pro- 
tected against sunburn. This can be easily done by winding strips 
of burlap from old grain sacks spirally around the stems beginning 
just below the ground surface to the points where the young shoots 
will appear. When these start the strip can be loosened and rewound 
so as to protect the bark between the shoots. The top can be fastened 
with a stitch or two with a twine needle. Manufactured "tree pro- 
tectors" of paper or rushes which are readily adjusted around the trees 





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Wm^ 


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' 'l'-. 




PROTECTION AGAINST SUNBURN 105 

are now largely sold. Whitewash made according to the formula at 
the close of Chapter IX is a good protection from sunburn. For 
young trees, however, it should be made with air-slacked lime, which 
has lost some of its causticity. Another whitewash, which has been 
largely used for young trees, consists of four ounces of whale oil soap 
dissolved in each gallon of water, Spanish whiting being stirred in to 
give the solution a paint-like consistency. Millions of trees have per- 
ished in this State, and as many more been condemned to sickly lives, 
because of sunburn, and borers which seek the injured bark for en- 
trance. Pruning has much to do with saving trees from this evil, as 
will be shown in the proper connection, but in the hotter parts of the 
State, the first precaution should be to shade the bark of the young 
tree with some artificial protection. The use of white lead and oil paint 
has, however, seriously injured young bark. 

Cutting Back at Planting. — Whatever idea the grower may have 
as to shajiing his tree, it must be cut back when planted. Lifting from 
the nursery has removed a considerable part of the root system of the 
young tree and the top must be reduced accordingly. The planter who 
dislikes to sacrifice the fine top will sacrifice future growth and vigor 
by retaining it. The tree may struggle through and regain strength, 
but it will for years be smaller than if it had been properly cut back 
at planting. If the moisture supply should be short the tree may die 
the first summer which would have survived if differently treated at 
planting. The manner of cutting back depends somewhat upon the 
style of pruning to be followed afterward, as will be considered in the 
next chapter. 



CHAPTER XII 

PRUNING TREES AND THINNING FRUIT 

It is not intended to enter into a discussion of the general theories 
of pruning. The reader desiring to pursue them is referred to the 
abundant hterature on the subject in Eastern and European treatises. 
The effort to approve or condemn these theories by considering them 
in the Hght of Cahfornia experience and observation might lead to 
interesting conclusions, but it has no place in a work aiming merely at 
an exposition of what appears to be the most satisfactory practice in 
California fruit growing. It will be found that this practice varies 
somewhat in the different regions of California, sometimes in degree, 
sometimes in kind, because of different local conditions, and it might be 
found that nearly all reasonable theories of pruning could be verified 
in California experience. 

Pruning in California is at present almost exclusively a shaping pro- 
cess. Our fruit trees are naturally so prone to bear fruit that pruning 
to produce fruitfulness is seldom thought of, and still more rarely 
practiced, while pruninng to reduce bearing wood, and thus decrease 
the burden of the tree, is quite widely done, to take the place, in part, 
of thinning out the fruit. Pruning to restore vigor to the tree, as in 
cutting it iDack to induce a new wood growth, is also rather a rare pro- 
ceeding, but probably could be much more widely employed to ad- 
vantage. We prune, then, for shape and for the many practical ad- 
vantages which adhere in the form now prevailing in California 
orchards. Some of these advantages are peculiar to our climate; others 
we share with those who advocate a similar form elsewhere. 

Our best orchards of the same fruits in adjacent localities are 
almost identical in form and general appearance of the trees, and those 
more distant differ chiefly in the extent to which the same principles 
are applied. And this is not because the trees are allowed to follow 
their natural inclination, which should secure resemblance but because 
their natural bent is resolutely conquered by agreement of growers 
that they know what is good for the tree ; and this substantial unanim- 
ity is the result of the experience of the last fifty-five years. People 
possessed of the art temperament sometimes complain of the depressing 
uniformity and artificiality of orchard-tree shapes in California. They 
are apt to lament the fact that systematic orcharding destroys the pic- 
turesqueness of tree-growth. They should understand that such con- 
ception of a fruit tree has no place in commercial fruit growing. The 
producing tree is the result of the conception of an agency to serve 
certain purposes. The orchardist does not pursue uniformity merely 
for its own sake, but rather for the purpose it serves, and the fact that 
many thinking men have practically agreed upon a certain form as an 
ideal of producing ability is demonstration that such form is, at least, 
approximately correct. There is an industrial conception of a tree, 

106 



ENDS SOUGHT IN PRUNING 107 

which is necessarily and essentially different from a conception of pic- 
turesqueness based upon the feral type. The wild tree is rude and 
crude from a cultural point of view. 

PRACTICAL PURPOSES OF PRUNING 

One of the first things for a beginner to undertake as he approaches 
tile practice of pruning trees and vines is to form a good idea of the 
purposes to be served. Imitation is not the foundation of intelligent 
pruning, though it yields many valuable suggestions. Satisfactory 
work rests upon a correct understanding of the reasons for each act 
and to the attainment of this, all study, observation and experience 
should tend. Possessing this, one can proceed capably, modifying 
method to meet condition, and producing desirable results. Receive 
all suggestions and then go quietly to the tree and study your problem 
in its shade. The tree is the best revelator of its needs. Some of the 
best pruners in California are men who were untrained to horticulture 
before they entered upon their orchard work. Reading, discussion, 
systematic instruction are all valuable. They save much time and many 
errors, but recourse to the tree affords the sovereign test of attainment. 

These may be counted among the practical purposes to be attained 
by pruning in California: (a) Convenience of the grower; (b) health 
and strength of the tree; (c) regulation of heat and light; (d) attain- 
ment of strong bearing wood ; (e) attainment of size in fruit ; (f) pro- 
motion of regular bearing. Examine trees with reference to their 
embodiment of these characters and one can hardly fail to secure rays 
of light upon the subject of pruning which seem dark to so many. 

Convenience. — Trees which branch near the ground are most 
quickly and cheaply handled in all the operations of pruning, spraying, 
fruit-thinning and picking. Low trees with obliquely-rising branches 
are more easily cultivated than any form with horizontal branches, un- 
less the head is carried so high that the animals pass easily under the 
tree. To do this sacrifices all the other conveniences and economies 
which actually determine profit, and is really out of the question from 
a commercial point of view. Sometimes it does not pay to pick some 
fruits at a certain distance above the ground, when picking at half that 
distance yields a profit. 

Health ajid Strength. — It is imperative in most parts of this 
State that the sunshine be not allowed to touch the bark during the heat 
of the day. This protection is secured even for young trees by low 
branching and encouragement of small, low laterals. The low tree with 
properly spaced branches attains superior strength by virtue of thick, 
strongly knit, short growth between branches, and by its strong, stiff, 
obliquely-rising growth sustains weight which brings horizontal 
branches to the ground, and thus even high-headed trees are liable to 
continually increasing interference with cultivation, and the desperate 
grower has to raise the head of his tree higher into the air and farther 
above the profit line, while at the same time he renders it more liable 
to sunburn, to bark-binding and to unthrift by forcing the sap to flow 



108 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

an unnecessary distance and through wood and bark which impede its 
movement. Besides a low tree escapes stress by strong winds which a 
high tree invites and at the same time is less able to withstand. Prun- 
ing for health and strength of tree also includes the removal of un- 
thrifty or diseased parts, which are not only an incumbrance to the tree 
but may communicate to other parts the causes of their ill condition. 

Heat and Light. — The maintenance of strong bearing wood in 
the lower part of the tree is conditioned upon the proper pruning of 
the top of the tree. How far the upper levels or the shade-layer of the 
tree can be safely opened, depends upon the local climate in each fruit 
region. The rule must be the higher the summer heat the denser the 
tree ; the lower the heat the thinner the tree ; but everywhere the proper 
condition of openness must be constantly in view in pruning. Not alone 
must this be done to maintain thrifty growth below, but it is also essen- 
tial to the best growth and ripening of the fruit in the lower and interior 
parts of the tree. Fruit inferior in size, color and quality results, in 
part, from lack of pruning to regulate the admission of light and heat, 
sometimes one, sometimes both, to the shaded portion of the tree. 

Bearing Wood. — Good fruit develops on good bearing wood and 
good bearing wood is the product of proper degrees of light and heat, 
as has just been urged. But bearing wood in the case of some fruits is 
new wood, and reduction of old wood for the purpose of forcing the 
growth of new wood must be constantly in mind. Renewal is more or 
less a consideration with all trees, and especially the securing of strong 
new wood. This is a point upon which close study of the bearing tree 
will yield most satisfactory suggestions. 

Size of Fruit. — The size of fruit, providing the tree is healthy 
and vigorous, depends upon the character and amount of bearing wood 
which the tree is allowed to carry. Removal of part of the fruit burden 
is done by thinning after it is well set, but this labor should always be 
minimized by antecedent pruning, which aims to retain more or less 
bearing wood according to the vigor, size and bearing habit of the tree. 
Thinning out of bearing shoots and spurs, when either are clearly seen 
to be in excess, should be the constant study of the pruner. 

Regular Bearing. — This point is largely involved in the preced- 
ing and affords an additional incentive. Regulating the amount of fruit 
borne in one year may involve the profit of two years, because a tree 
may not be able to produce an excessive amount of fruit and perfect 
good fruit buds for the following year. It may generally make buds 
which will bloom, but not always that. If it does make the bloom, it is 
no guaranty that the bloom will be strong and effective for bearing. 
Consequently, pruning for reasonable amount of bearing should always 
be borne in view and should be practiced at the close of the year of non- 
bearing with particular diligence, if the alternate year bearing habit is 
to be broken up. 

The foregoing are among the practical purposes to be served in 
pruning. There are others, but these will suffice to emphasize a single 
point, and that is, that pruning can not be compressed into a single 
formula, nor can one learn it by a recipe. There are various ends to 



CALIFORNIA STYLES OF ORCHARD TREES 109 

attain ; they may be attainetl in dilTerent ways, although it is not strange 
that substantial agreement in methods does largely prevail. It is better 
to try to understand the purposes than to memorize the formula;. Get 
the tree and its interest clearly in the mind ; have an ideal toward which 
to work ; be more interested in why a neighbor prunes in a certain way 
than how he does it. Learn constantly by all available means, and at 
the same time study the visible forms and aim to understand their 
fullest sig-nificance. 



FORMS OF TREE BEST SUITED TO CALIFORNIA 
CONDITIONS 

The form of deciduous fruit tree which prevails with singular uni- 
formity all over the State is the "vase," or "goblet," or "wine-glass" 
form, all these terms signifying a similar shape. There are ditiferent 
ways in which this form is secured and maintained in different parts 
of the State, and with different fruits, which will be especially noted in 
the chapters devoted to these fruits. 

The mainspring of success in California is to grow low trees. Low 
is a term admitting of degrees, it is true, any may imply a trunk six 
inches up to one or two feet, in the clear. In addition to the general 
advantages of low-trained trees which have been described, there are 
special reasons for this form in California. Hundreds of thousands of 
trees have been destroyed by the exposure of a long, bare trunk to the 
rays of the afternoon sun. The sun-burned sides have given the con- 
ditions desired by borers, and destruction has quickly followed. - Some 
times young trees have not survived their first season in the orchard, 
because of burned bark, or this, with the added injury by the borers. 
It is also found by California experience that growth is more vigorous 
in the branches wdien they emerge near the ground. Even where 
actual burning may not occur the travel of the sap through the longer 
distance of trunk is undesirable. It is believed, also, that benefit re- 
sults from shading of the ground at the base of the trees, by reducing 
evaporation, and by maintaining a temperature of soil better suited 
to vigorous root-growth. 

But whatever may be the reasons, the fact is indisputable, the 
higher the prevailing summer temperature, and the greater the aridity, 
the lower should the trees be headed. Trees which will do well in the 
central and upper coast region and adjacent to the bay of San Fran- 
cisco, with twenty-four to thirty-six inches of clear trunk, would 
dwindle and j)robably perish in the heated valleys in all parts of the 
State. In such situations, both north and south, the best practice is to 
head the tree fifteen, twelve, and even some hold as low as six inches 
from the ground. There will always be some difference of opinion as 
to detail, but the necessity of making the trunk short enough to be 
effectually shaded by the foliage is admitted by all growers. 

Variations of the Vase Form. — There are several variations of 
the vase form to be'found in California orchards. The prevalent is a 
vase form with short-jointed leaders which will be described in detail 



110 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 



as the "common vase form." Another, which is gaining in popularity, 
aims to grow leaders trained along in directions first chosen for them, 
and this will be described as the "vase form with continuous leaders." 
The latter method aims to secure more open centers and to produce 
fruit nearer to the leaders or, as one may call them, the ribs of the 
tree — the figure having a rough resemblance to the ribs of an inverted 
umbrella rather than the ribs of a man. 

Characteristic of the Common Vase Form. — This vase form is 
a product of French ingenuity in the training of dwarf trees, but it has 
undergone very marked modification in California, losing much of the 
accuracy of its outline and gaining vastly in speed of work and in 
bearing capacity of tree without sacrificing any practical value which 
adheres in the design. 

This vase form dispenses with the central stem or trunk at a certain 
short distance above the ground, but this is not done for the purpose of 
securing a hollow or open-center tree, which is a leading characteristic 
of the old European vase form. The few branches which are desired to 
grow from the short stem are pruned when the tree is young to induce 
successive branching with short interspaces. At each cutting the aim is 
to get two branches from one, and nearly as posible of equal vigor, so 
the California tree does not, except, of course, in occasional instances, 
show the outline of a leader from the bottom to the top, but there is a 
succession of branchings, turned this way or that by the skillful pruner, 
occupying available air space, distributing the weight so it comes more 
nearly over the center of gravity and at the same time knitting the 
fibers of the branch so that the weight of the fruit is well sustained. 
This idea, however, is not allowed to go so far as to wholly close the 





Forms of head resulting from cutting back. 

Twelve-year-old apple tree in the writer's garden in Berkeley, showing forms of head 
resulting from cutting back for greater and less spacing of main branches at planting. 



now TO FORM THE HEM) OF A TREE 



111 






Results of cutting back to longer and shorter stems. 

.^„ .•^P""' and cherry trees 'twelve years old, showing results of cuttine back tn I j 

shorter stems at planting, as an experiment in head form. ^ °"'" ^"'^ 



112 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

interior of the tree, but to retain such degree of open interior as is 
found desirable. When the tree is laden with fruit, the weight natur- 
ally expands the top quite enough to admit the sunlight without expos- 
ing either the fruit or the branches to danger of burning. Thus is 
appears that instead of the true vase of wine-glass, with hollow interior 
and thin walls, we have the general exterior outline of this model, but 
give a good part of the central area of the figure to bearing shoots, and 
thus secure a large bearing surface with well-strengthened supports. 

It has been found that this many-branching form, developed upon a 
few main branches well placed upon the trunk, gives a stronger tree 
than can be had by growing a considerable number of leaders, all start- 
ing from near the point where the tree was headed at planting. Such 
leaders crowd each other at the point of emergence from the stem, and 
when laden with fruit, sway outward and break out at this point. A 
vastly stronger tree is secured by starting but four or five branches 
from the low trunk and letting them emerge from different sides of 
the stem, and at different levels. Thus teach main attachment to the 
stem has abundant room, and the wood enlarges symmetrically and 
solidly. The expansion of the top is attained by the branching which 
follows the cutting back of succeeding years. Starting branches from 
nearly the same level on the stem has been the occasion of great losses 
of overladen trees, and quite a considerable recourse to strengthening 
up weak trees by running bolts through from side to side at the points 
where experience shows breakage is likely to occur. In this respect it 
is now clearly shown that the practice which was widely adopted a few 
years ago of beginning with a very short stem and using the three or 
four adjacent buds nearest the point to which the tree was cut back at 
planting is defective. It is much better not to cut back so far at plant- 
ing, but to leave a longer trunk, keep a greater distance between the 
main branches and still have the lowest branch as near the ground as 
before, thus securing a tree which is practically as low as that secured 
by the old method of starting. This point will be enforced by illus- 
trations. 

HOW TO SECURE THE COMMON VASE FORM 

For the benefit of the inexperienced reader, it will be well to illus- 
trate the steps by which the form of tree found so generally desirable 
is to be attained. 

Cutting Back at Planting. — This has been already mentioned 
as essential to strong growth of the transplanted tree. It is also the 
prime act in securing a tree with a low head and strong branches. For- 
merly trees were cut back farther than desirable and the branches 
allowed to crowd each other, as has just been stated. It is better to 
retain twenty-four inches of stem than twelve inches — providing care 
is taken during the first summer to prevent, by pinching, the growth 
of too many branches near together. Allow those to grow which are 
more distant from each other on the stem and pinch the intervening 
shoots. In this way one can have the lowest branch at six inches from 
the ground in the hot valleys if desired, or twelve inches in the coast 



THE COMMON VASE FORM 113 

valleys, and the highest branch at eighteen or twenty-four inches. This 
gives about twice the distance between the main branches which was 
formerly allowed, and it is of vast advantage to the strength of the 
tree. The illustrations of this fact are from trees planted by the writer 
in 1887 to test this matter. At this date they are large trees and show 
the forms of heads resulting from different spacing of branches on the 
young trees during the first summer's growth. 

First, then, cut back the tree just after planting, as shown in the 
engraving, deciding first at which height you wish trees to form heads, 
and cut them all back as uniformly as possible and still secure a good 
bud just below the point of cutting. To preserve these buds the trees 
should be handled carefully w'hile removing from the nursery and dur- 
ing planting. 

If the tree has already grown laterals in the nursery where the head 
is desired, three or four of these properly placed on the stem may be 
selected to form the main branches, shortened in to the sound bud 
nearest the stem, and other laterals, not desired to form the head, re- 
moved. This treatment is shown in the engraving of a young peach 
tree well branched in the nursery. If all the laterals on the young tree 
have started out above where the head is desired, as is sometimes the 
case, it may be necessary to remove the whole top, and usually others 
will start below afterwards. If there are no buds visible on the stem at 
the place where the head is desired, the choice must be made between 
heading the tree higher up, where the buds are, or cutting back without 
regard to buds, trusting to the development of latent buds at the right 
place, or to the growth of a shoot from below, which can be cut back 
to form a head the following year. It is for this reason, among others, 
that planters prefer a yearling tree which has not branched, but has 
good buds all along the stem. Peaches and apricots usually branch in 
the nursery, but usually have dormant buds at the bases of such branches 
which can be employed in making new growth where it is desired. 

After cutting back at planting, the shoots desired to form the head 
are allowed to make their full growth without interference. All shoots 
not desired for branches are pinched off after growing out two or tiiree 
inches, leaving a bunch of leaves to shade the trunk and contribute to 
its stouter growth. Constant watchfulness is necessary to pinch off un- 
desirable branches all the first summer. 

First Pruning. — In the winter following planting, the shoots of 
the previous season's growth are cut back to about ten or twelve inches 
from their junction with the stem. Some prefer to cut shorter, but this 
is apt to huddle the branches too close together when they get old and 
stout. Growers, however, do not agree on the exact length which these 
future main branches should be left at first pruning. 

If, during the first summer's growth, all shoots except the number 
desired to form the head have been pinched back, the first winter prun- 
ing consists only in cutting back the main branches. If laterals have 
grown on the parts of these branches which are to be left on the tree, 
they should be cut back to a bud or two. Some growers practice cutting 
away all such laterals cleanly because they are too young to bear fruit, 
but it is better to shorten and retain at least a part of them and, when 



114 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 



growth starts, pinch the tips after throwing out a few leaves to shade 
and thicken the branches, just as the short growths left the previous 
summer serve the main stem. 

Second Pruning. — During the second summer it is usual to allow 
two branches to grow from each of the main branches left at the pre- 
vious winter pruning, and to pinch off all others, as described. These 
branches are allowed to run out their full growth, except where ex- 
cessive growth is made, and then it is repressed by summer pruning. 
This is done with the apricot in the warmer parts of the State, as will 
be considered at length in the chapter on that fruit. Usually, however, 
the main branches are untouched during the second summer's growth 
unless some are running out so far as to make the tree lop-sided. Dur- 
ing the following winter the main branches are cut back from one-half 
to two-thirds of the growth they have made, and if too many strong 
laterals have grown below this point, some are shortened, others are 
removed entirely where they are apt to cross or crowd each other or to 
interfere with cultivation. It is not desirable, however, that all small 
growth should be cleanly removed. Some of these small shoots will 
bear a little fruit and the leaf action is in any case desirable as a con- 
tributor to the strength of the larger branches to which they are at- 
tached. Besides, they serve to shade the bark from sunburn. 

Third Pruning. — When the tree reaches its third winter prun- 
ing, its form is well outlined, and early-bearing trees like the peach, 
apricot, almond, Japanese plum, etc., will give the grower a respectable 






Pruning for branch spacing. 

Yearling apple marked to cut back for greater or less 
space between main branches; also first year's growth 
from each beginning marked for first winter pruning. 



VASE FORM WITH CONTINUOUS LEADERS 115 

crop the next season. To bear this crop greater care should be taken at 
the third winter pruning to leave the small laterals low down on the 
main branches, for on them, clustered close in the head of the tree, most 
of the first crop will be found. Though some trees, as stated, do bear 
earlier than the third summer, the fruit is not usually considered of 
commercial account until the third summer. An engraving is given of 
a peach tree just after its second winter pruning. It is a very good 
representative of the common vase-form of a tree as grown in Cali- 
fornia. It has four main branches, each issuing from a different point 
on the stem, each permitted to carry two main branches, which are not 
arranged around the circumference, but some of them tending toward 
the center. At the third pruning more shoots have been left than are 
required by the rule, for, starting with four main branches, there are 
usually sixteen left at the third pruning. 

VASE FORM WITH CONTINUOUS LEADERS 

This form has the same prototype as the common vase form, viz. : 
the French garden tree and it adheres more closely to the motives and 
characters of its prototype. As practiced in the Winters region on the 
west side of the Sacramento Valley, it is aptly described by D. J. Whit- 
ney as follows : 

"It is called the open-top system of pruning. Hold in mind a wide, 
shallow bowl with long legs bent inward and joining at the bottom com- 
ing down rather regularly from rim to base and you know what a typi- 
cal open-top apricot tree looks like. The idea seems to have leaders to 
come up along the outside of the tree, none in the center at all, to have 
the center of the tree open, or occupied only by fruit wood and not 
much of it. In the yearly pruning the development is all outward. 
There is an effort to have fruit wood along the leaders down to the 
crotch, but often without success. Looking over an orchard from above, 
there can be seen a lot of flat green disks set regularly twenty to thirty 
feet or so apart." 

This variation of the vase form is quite a departure from the com- 
mon vase form, both in its purposes and methods. It is used in the 
Winters' region for apricots, peaches and plums. It is coming into the 
upper San Joaquin Valley for peaches, the leaders, however, being 
grown nearer to upright because of the weaker wood of the peach. As 
used for that fruit it will be discussed in detail in Chapter XX. It is 
also used for the lemon, as exemplified by the flat, saucer-shaped trees 
which one will see in some lemon orchards. As something of a de- 
parture, both in principles and practices, from the common vase form 
which has widely prevailed for the last forty years, it has still to widely 
demonstrate its claims to superiority. 

PRUNING BEARING TREES 

Three winter prunings of deciduous trees usually establish their per- 
manent form, and subsequent pruning is chiefly directed toward the 
retention of that form ; for strength of branch and stem ; for renewal 



116 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 



of bearing wood ; for regulation of amount of bearing wood ; for rela- 
tive light and shade, and for convenience in cultivation and other 
orchard work. Naturally, these ends are sought according to the needs 
and habits of different fruits, and the methods of attaining them will 
be discussed in the chapters treating of these fruits. There are, how- 
ever, certain general considerations which are proper in this connec- 
tion: 

Pruning during the dormancy of the tree induces greater growth 
of wood during the following summer ; pruning during the active period 
reduces wood growth and promotes fruit-bearing. The amount of 
wood removed during the dormant period will make the summer growth 




Yearling peach. Cut back at planting. 



First summer's growth in the 
orchard. 



These sketches, and those on pages 118 and 119, represent the progress of the peach 
tree from a branched yearling to bearing form entering the third summer. 

of wood proportionately stronger. Whether the total weight of wood 
growth would be greater may be questioned, but the effective wood 
growth is certainly greater. Whether the feet of new wood grown on 
a peach tree cut back to stumps in the winter would be greater in weight 
than all the inches of growth which would be scattered all over the sur- 
face of the tree if not cut back, may be doubted, but the new growth 
secured by cutting back will be of immense vigor, and the following 
year will bear large fruit, while the new growth on the tree not cut 
back will be thin and short and the fruit absent or indifferent. The 
weaker the tree or the branch or the twig of the tree, the greater part 
of it to be removed when dormant to get the stronger new growth. 



THE COMMON VASE FORM 



117 



In the case of fruit trees in vigorous growth pruning during the 
active period or allowing the wood to go uncut during the dormant 
period, having the same effect, viz., the promotion of fruiting. Some 
trees, like apricots and peaches, which bear upon new laterals, will bear 
fruit even though heavily winter-cut, if these small laterals are retained 
on the lower parts of the main branches. Some other trees, like the 
prune, which bear on spurs, will delay the formation of spurs if heavily 
winter-cut. These two facts suggest two diverse policies in pruning 
bearing trees : A peach tree unpruned will reduce its crop for lack of 
weakness of new laterals ; a prune tree too severely winter-pruned will 
reduce its crop for lack of old spurs. Again, some fruits, or varieties 





First winter pruning. 



Second summer growth in orchard. 



of fruits, bear chiefly upon the tips, others chiefly upon the lateral 
spurs; shortening one reduces the crop largely; shortening the other 
may increase the marketable crop by decreasing the aggregate number 
These and other similar facts suggest that pruning bearing trees, to be 
intelligently pursued, must be accompanied with the fullest possible 
knowledge of the bearing habit of the fruit or variety thereof. 

Cutting back or "shortening in" should be done in a way which will 
reduce the burst of new shoots near the cut. This is measurably secured 
by always cutting the branch at a strong lateral, because the sap flow 
into this lateral prevents undue pressure and forcing of latent buds in 
the vicinity of the cut. For this reason the cutting back of all branches 



118 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



to a certain definite height is wrong. Trees shorn across at a certain 
line become thick as a brush with top shoots which require extensive 
thinning, or the bearing wood will soon be all at that level through 
failure of the densely shaded bearing wood below. Cut to the nearest 
lateral below the line you wish to approximate, and shorten the lateral, 
if desirable, and the result will be fewer and stronger shoots than from 
a stub-cut. 

In the treatment of bearing trees the main effort should generally be 
toward thinning or reducing the number of bearing shoots. This is 
related to the important work of thinning the fruit to reduce the burden 
of the tree, and will be mentioned again in that connection. The work 




Second winter pruning in orchard. 

has, however, a bearing beyond the size of the individual fruit speci- 
mens. It involves the whole future of the tree as a profitable affair. An 
unthinned tree becomes a thicket of small, weak, and dying laterals and 
spurs. An attempt to cure this afterwards by sawing out many large 
branches is only partially successful, though perhaps the best thing that 
can be done after such condition has been allowed to exist. The only 
way to keep the interior of the tree full enough of strong, bearing wood 
is to resolutely and regularly thin out surplus shoots as the tree ad- 
vances in age and size. This work is as important with trees which 
are not regularly cut back, as with those which are thus treated. It is 
one of the most vital as well as the most generally neglected item in 
orchard practice. 



WHEN TO PRUNE FRUIT TREES 119 

In thinning out lateral hearing shoots seldom leave more than one 
at any point ; select the strongest ; remove the rest close to the branch. 
When a new shoot springs out at the base of an older one remove the 
older one ; when a new shoot breaks out on the side of an older one 
cut the older one back to that point. In thinning always reject the 
older, weaker laterals or spurs. This does not api)ly to the outbreak of 
strong suckers or water sprouts below the main branches ; they should 
usually be cleanly cut away unless a new main branch is desirable. 

Pruning of bearing trees should always have regard to the removal 
of branches which have become decrepit through sunburn, blight or 
disease of any kind, frost injury, or in any form die-back from what- 
ever cause. Such wood is not only of lessened value, but there is also 
danger of extension of the trouble. Removing such wood and training 
new wood to take its place should always be in mind. 

Where cutting of large branches is demanded for any reason it 
should be remembered that the wounds are most quickly healed and 
least injury to the tree is to be apprehended if the cutting is done near 
the beginning of the growing season, and not at the beginning of the 
dormant period. 

TIMES FOR PRUNING 

Some changes of view have lately prevailed as to the times, within 
the dormant period, during which winter-pruning can be done to the 
best advantage. Formerly it was thought to be a vital matter that no 
cutting should be done until the leaves had fallen, and this is still 
the prevailing practice, and may prove to be on all accounts the best. 
Recently, however, pruning in autumn has been quite widely practiced. 

Fall Pruning. — There is a time near the end of the active season 
in California when the foliage changes its aspect. There is no marked 
change in color, perhaps, but there is a certain limpness and drooping 
which betokens decided decline in activity. It comes first to the early 
fruits, the cherries and apricots, for instance, and upon old trees earlier 
than young ones. The buds are well formed ; the season's growth 
apparently complete. There are no frosts to hasten the fall of the leaf 
and it remains in place. Does it render any important service? On 
the conclusion that docs not. many growers begin the winter pruning 
while the days are longer and the ground dry and firm, rather than delay 
pruning until the short, dark days and rain-soaked soil of December 
and January render pruning expensive and disagreeable. Those trees 
are first pruned which first assume the appearance described, and the 
work proceeds with other varieties afterwards until the winter pruning 
may be finished by December 1 — about the time when it commonly 
began under the old practice. Not only is more thus accomplished in 
the same number of days' work, but the orchard is earlier in shape for 
the winter spraying and cultivation, and the grower is ahead of his 
work and not behind it all the season if the season is unusually rainy. 
Several years' practice of this method discloses no bad results except in 
the one item of increasing danger from frost. \'ines and trees pruned 
early in the dormant period have a tendency to start growth earlier 
than those pruned late in the dormant period. In places, then, where 



120 



I 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



early bloom and fruit-setting are particularly threatened by frost, this 
practice may be undesirable. 

Spring Pruning. — Resting largely upon this matter of retarding 
growth, the practice of pruning very late in the dormant period, or, 
in fact, at the beginning of the growing season, is also gaining wider 
adoption where frost injury is especially feared. It is not actual freez- 
ing, but a drop of two or three degrees below the freezing point which 
is feared, and during recent years such a temperature has wrought 
havoc with some fruits, in early valley regions particularly. Later 
pruning, even after the bloom and foliage have appeared, has worked 
no injury to the trees, but it is less conveniently done than when the 
trees are free of foliage. 





Young peach and apple trees, showing branches well spaced on the stems. 

Summer Pruning. — Summer pruning, to induce bearing, is, as 
has been previously, intimated, but little employed in this State, for the 
constant tendency of our trees is to bear early and to overbear. Enough 
has, however, been done in individual cases to show that fruit-bearing 
is promoted by pruning after the chief growth of the season has been 
attained. If the pruning results in forcing out laterals late in the season 
it has been done too early. What is desirable is the strengthening or 
development of fruit buds, and this will be accomplished after the energy 
has been too far dissipated to make new wood growth. 

Summer pruning to check the too exuberant wood growth of some 
kinds of trees is employed to some extent, chiefly in the warmer parts 
of the State, where the vegetative process in some trees seems fairly 
to run riot, and unless checked is apt to ruin the tree by breaking to 




':Ji o 



o 



SUMMER PRUNING OF FRUIT TREES 121 

pieces when the wind and weight of fruit test its strength. The methods 
of summer pruning employed in different parts of the State for different 
fruits will be considered in connection with the special chapters on 
these fruits. 

Summer pruning to preserve form is another matter, and relates in 
the main to jjinching in, to check undesirable extension and to direct 
the sap toward shoots in which growth is desired. This practice is 
approved by most of our orchardists, and is employed by them to a 
greater or less extent. More people believe in it than practice it, how- 
ever, because the summer months, with their long succession of fruits 
to be gathered and shipped or dried, and the additional consideration 
that there is always a scarcity of labor at this time, give the orchardist 
so much work to do that he is more apt to confine his "pinching" to a 
little that he may do now and then when he has a few moments' leisure 
than to do the work thoroughly and systematically. The result is that 
the regular winter pruning is the main operation for tree shaping In 
this State. 

There is such a great difference in opinion about summer pruning 
that it will be very difificult to make any assertions about it which will 
not be disputed. Aluch of this difference comes, of course, from differ- 




Weak tree from ill-spaced branches. 

ent conditions prevailing in different trees and in different parts of 
the State, and some of these will be met, as already promised, in follow- 
ing chapters. Leaving these wholly out of consideration at this time, 
it is safe to advise those who wish to secure symmetry or any particular 
form in any kind of a tree, that they can resort to summer pinching 
with advantage, and can sometimes to advantage remove wood too 
large for the thumb and finger to sever. 

Con.stant watchfulness should be maintained for adventitious shoots 
starting out on stem or limb at points where branches are not desired. 
Wherever they start out strongly, they should be pinched, or entirely 
removed, according to the best judgment to be formed in each case. 
They should not be allowed to divert the sap from the fruiting wood 
to make the generally coarse and sterile wood which is characteristic 
of them. Suckers which properly, according to Downing, are "shoots 
sent up from the root or from parts of the stem below the surface of 
the soil," should be removed whenever discovered. In common Cali- 
fornia parlance the term "sucker" is used as a synonym for "water- 
sprout" and signifies" undesirable shooting from any part of the tree or 
vine. 



122 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

RENEWING OLD TREES 

Improving and renewing trees by cutting back and grafting has 
already been considered under the head of propagation. It is often 
desirable to renew trees of a satisfactory variety, and this is done 
simply by cutting back when the tree is dormant. Cutting back was 
formerly done early in the winter, before the rise of the sap begins, but 
more recently it has been seen that the exposure of large cut surfaces 
for weeks or months before growth begins, results in drying and shrink- 
age of the bark and checking of the wood, both of which are avoided 
by amputation later in the dormant period or during the early part of 
the growing season. In cutting back, of course, those stumps should 
be left to support new branches which will secure the best balance and 
symmetry in the new head. When the new growth starts there gener- 
ally appear many more shoots than are desirable, and selection of the 
best-placed and most vigorous should be chosen, the others either being 
rubbed off in the bud or pinched back when a few leaves are put out. 
In cutting back trees, the exposed trunk and branch stumps should be 
wrapped in old sacking, or carefully whitewashed as protection from 
sunburn. 

In removing large limbs it is desirable that the cut should be made 
in the right place so as to secure quick covering of the scar with new 
growth. Cutting so as to leave a long stub results in an unsightly 
piece of dead wood on the tree, and this, in decaying, carries the decay 
deep into the center of the trunk or branch. Cutting too close prevents 
covering with the new bark, and also results in a hole in the branch. 
Cutting just to the right mark, which is the outer edge of the little 
collar or swelling which will be found at the base of all branches, 
enables the wound to grow over quickly, and if the wound is properly 
treated when cut, there will be no decay, and the wound will soon be 
obliterated. 

In amputating large branches, an undercut with the saw should be 
made first so that the bark shall not be torn as the branch falls. Another 
good way is to saw off first at a distance from the final cut, and then 
saw off smoothly at the right place when the weight is removed. 

Trees often become "hide-bound," as it is called. Especially in this 
dry climate the bark gets dry and tough, therefore can not expand in 
proportion to the growth of the tree, or supply the amount of sap neces- 
sary for the demand. Slitting such trees here and there up and down 
the trunk and main limbs with a sharp knife seems to have good effect, 
for often in three months the cut opens half an inch, and a fine, clear 
bark, with an increase of growth, results. On old trees, too,' there is 
often a growth of moss and lichens which should be removed. This 
can be done by scraping off the rough, loose bark and spraying with 
an alkaline wash, composed of one pound of caustic soda or potash to 
six gallons of water. If scale insects are present, the lime, salt, and 
sulphur spray should be used, as will be described in the chapter on 
injurious insects. This will remove the parasites, give the trees a clean, 
bright bark and contribute to their vigor. 



USE OF KNIVES AND SHEARS 123 



PRUNING TOOLS 



There is some difference of opinion as to the comparative value of 
the pruninj^ knife and the pruning shears. The knife, if sharp, and 
well used, makes a smooth cut, with no bruising of the bark, and such 
a wound heals over perfectly. The shears, if of good pattern and sharp, 
also make a very good cut, but there is always some little injury to 
the bark on the side opposite the entry of the blade. On small cuts, 
say three-quarters of an inch or less, if the blade is kept very sharp, the 
resistance does not make sufficient injury to the bark to seriously con- 
sider, and the speed with which the shears can be used renders them 
the main reliance for all the smaller pruning. Nearly all styles of hand 
shears are used in this State. 

There are. also, two-hand shears, which are very powerful, and 
enable one to work very quickly. When kept well sharpened they are 
very effective tools. There are a number of styles in use, both home- 
made and imported. 

Still another arrangement of shears is mounted on a pole, the cut- 
ting blade being operated by a cord, and having a spring to throw the 
blade back. The pole is jointed, so that one or more lengths can be 
used. With this device one can stand on the ground and shorten in 
the top shoots of a tree very handily. 

For larger cuts than can be made with the pruning knife or one- 
hand shears, there are pruning saws of different styles, of which two 
styles are chiefly used. One has a frame made of the best spring steel, 
constructed somewhat on the plan of a butcher's saw, except that the 
saw blade is much narrower ; and instead of being stationary, it revolves 
so that the pruner is enabled to adjust the blade to cut at any angle, 
as is often necessary to do when cutting where limbs grow close to- 
gether, and where it would be impossible to use an ordinary saw of a 
wider blade. The blade is only one-fourth to one-half inch wide, and 
therefore not liable to get pinched in the cut. Strength is imparted by 
a tension screw under the handle, which tightens the blade. The blade 
is easily detached by slackening the tension screw, and lifting the blade 
out of the slot in the clutches at each end. The blade can be thus 
reversed and made to cut with a push or a pull, as may be desired. 

Another popular saw is the curved pruning saw, with twelve and 
fourteen-inch blades, which cuts with a pull. 

During recent years it has been possible to find quite full assort- 
ments of pruning tools at the hardware and general merchandise stores 
in all our fruit districts where these devices can be compared and selec- 
tion made according to individual preference, for there can be no best 
tools for all men and all uses. 

CUTTING TO A BUD 

Whatever may be used to make the cut, it is important to sever 
the twig or shoot at that distance from a wood bud which gives that 
bud the best chance to grow well, and at the same time facilitates the 
healing and complete obliteration of the scar. Cutting too far from the 
bud leaves a stub which dies back, and is likely to carry decay into the 



124 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

pith and thence down into the hmb. Cutting too close to the bud or 
carrying the slope down too far behind it, does not give it enough live 
wood to carry it, and it makes a weak growth. 

Cutting to inside buds with trees of spreading habit, and to outside 
buds with upright growers, or to a side bud when lateral extension is 
desired, should always be remembered as a means of throwing new 
growth in the direction demanded by symmetery and equal occupation 
of the space allotted to the tree. This is one respect in which study 
of the habit of the tree suggests proper practice. 

COVERING WOUNDS 

Whenever wood is cut with so great diameter that it will not grow 
over in one season, the wound should be coated with something to keep 
the wood from checking and decaying. It has been amply demon- 
strated by California experience that smooth-paring of the cut made 
by shears or saw is a waste of time. Large wounds should, however, 
be covered to prevent checking of the wood and drying back of bark 
edges. Nothing is better or cheaper for this covering than lead and 
oil paint, a little thicker than for ordinary use, and applied sparingly, 
so that it will not run down the bark. Asphaltum, "Grade D," applied 
warm is used in the same way with satisfaction. 

GATHERING UP PRUNINGS 

Gathering up prunings for burning is tedious and expensive, and 
several efforts have been made to substitute machinery for hand labor. 
Anderson's Brush Rake, invented by W. C. Anderson, of San Jose, 
has been used to some extent. It readily gathers all kinds of tree and 
vine brush, compresses it considerably and is easily discharged of its 
load by a slight lift while still going forward. It is said to save about 
one-half the cost of hand raking, Brush is often gathered into wind- 
rows by the use of horse rakes borrowed from the hay field. 

Baling Prunings. — There is a fuel value in prunings which has 
become more clear since pumping for irrigation is so widely practiced, 
but loose prunings are too expensive in handling. T. G. Rogers, of 
Winters, has contrived a "brush baler." It is a large strong saw-horse 
inverted, to which is bolted a long, heavy lever. Attached to a cross 
piece on the lever are four heavy tines bent in a semi-circle. The saw- 
horse is filled with brush, the lever is then pulled down and fastened by 
a ratchet brake, the brush is forced into a small, compact bundle, and 
when bound with wire makes a bundle easily handled by the fireman. 

Prunings for Fertilizing. — Although many propositions for re- 
turning prunings to the soil and several machines for cutting have 
been used, such practice has never widely prevailed because of cost 
of labor involved. At the Limoneira lemon orchard in Ventura county, 
a feed cutter run by a gasoline engine, and both mounted on a 
wagon-bed, is run through the orchard after pruning. Two men pick 
up prunings and feed them into the cutter as the wagon slowly pro- 
ceeds. This waste from an evergreen tree seems to decay very readily 
in the soil as it is covered-in by cultivation. 



INCREASING SIZE OF FRUITS 125 

THINNING FRUIT 

Intimately connected with the pruning of bearing trees, is the thin- 
ning of the fruit or proper spacing of the individual fruits so that each 
shall have space and sap to allow its attainment of satisfactory market- 
able size. It has been fully demonstrated that no demand is profitable 
which will be content with the undersized fruit from an overladen tree. 
The superior price for good-sized fruit for all uses, not excluding dry- 
ing, is unquestionable ; the total weight secured may be variable as 
between thinned and unthinned trees, but it can be accepted as an 
indisputable fact that any increase of weight there may be upon an 
unthinned tree will not be nearly an equivalent for the loss in value. It 
is the conclusion of our largest and most successful growers that, large 
as is the expenditure required for careful and systematic thinning of 
fruit, it is the most directly profitable outlay which they have to make 
for orchard maintenance. 

Objects in View in Fruit Thinning. — Rut thinning fruit has 
objects beyond the value of the visible crop which it makes profitable. 
No overburdened tree can discharge the two-fold summer duty of every 
cultivated fruit-bearing tree, which is to perfect this season's fruit 
and lay a good strong foundation for next year's bearing. If the tree, 
after fruit gathering, has not the strong, vigorous foliage to complete 
the formation of fruit buds for the following year, there will either 
be a lack of bloom or a show of bloom unfit to set, and the tree will 
work for itself next year, and not for you, because this year you would 
not work for it. In this particular, thinning fruit coincides in purpose 
with pruning to limit the amount of bearing wood, which has already 
been considered. 

Other objects there are also which are related directly to the profit 
of orcharding and should command respect from the most careless. 
The following is an emphatic statement of the case : 

There are at least six ways in which growers are repaid for thinning 
peaches, nectarines or apricots designed for drying: 

First: Yon can thin off half the fruit when small quicker than you could 
piciv it when large, and when mature the time required to fill a basket depends 
mainly upon the numher of peaches it holds. 

Second : It takes just as long to cut and spread on a drying tray a small peach 
as a large one. It takes longer to cut eight peaches that will weigh a pound 
than to cut three and pick five off when they are little. 

Third: If peaches run six to the pound the weight of pits will not vary 
much from that of the cured fruit. If they run three to the pound, tliey will 
weigh not much over half. A ton of large peaches is as likely to yield 400 
pounds of dried as a ton of small fruit of the same variety to yield 300 pounds. 
It means a diiYercnce of about $8.00 per ton in the value of the fresh fruit 
to the dryer. It will co'^t over $1.()0 per ton to thin a heavily laden peach orchard 
in a way to make that difference. 

Fourth : Granted that you leave fruit to reach the same weight as maturity, 
still you leave it along the body and in places on the limbs where the weight 
has no breaking leverage and take it off the ends where it may get sun-burned 
and is almost sure to break the tree. 

Fifth : Vitality drawn irom the plant and certain elements of fertility from 
the soil, are in proportion to the number of seeds matured. The pulp cuts 
little figure except in aerial substances and water. 



126 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

Sixth : Suppose that fruit dried from peaches that weigh three to the pound 
only brings one cent a pound more than that from peaches half that size. Two 
cents would more accurately measure the difference in value. Still, the smaller 
figure is enough to meet the whole cost of picking and hauling or of cutting and 
drying in any well-managed establishment. 

When to Thin Fruit. — Thinning of fruit should begin with the 
winter pruning of bearing trees, as has been already urged in con- 
nection with regulating the amount of bearing wood allotted to each 
tree. After this is carefully done, there is the thinning of bloom, which 
is urged on the ground of least possible loss of energy by the tree in 
the partial development of fruit to be subsequently removed. Hand- 
thinning of individual blooms is impracticable on a commercial scale, 
but the removal of spurs or twigs, or shortening of them with shears, 
is feasible enough. The objection must lie in the fact that profusion 
of bloom does not necessarily indicate an excessive set of fruit, and any 
severe reduction of bloom is, therefore, venturesome unless one is fully 
assured by local experience of the habit of the variety under treatment. 
Reduction of the amount of fruit itself is, therefore, the only safe pro- 
ceeding, and this should not, as a rule, be undertaken until the first 
drop, through lack of pollination, has taken place. Even at greater 
theoretical loss of energy to the tree, it is better to err on the side of 
thinning a little too late than too early in order to secure the fullest 
assurance possible of the permanent burden which the tree assumes. 
Where spring frosts are likely to occur they afford additional reason 
for delay. If surety of the local conditions comes before the pits harden 
in the young fruit it is fortunate for the tree, but even after that it is 
still a greater saving to the tree and assurance of profit to the grower 
to reduce the fruit to a proper amount than to permit over-bearing. 

The Practice of Thinning. — If the tree has not been sufficiently 
relieved of an excess of bearing wood during the winter pruning and 
has made a very heavy set of fruit, thinning with the shears by cutting 
out whole spurs or short bearing shoots, or even shortening in longer 
limbs, cutting always to a lateral when possible, is of no appreciable 
injury to the tree. After all the shear-work possible is done, the spac- 
ing of the fruits on the twigs and branches must be provided for. This 
was done in early days by beating the tree with a pole, and some still 
maintain that they can use the pole to advantage. The almost universal 
practice, however, is to use the hand in plucking or pushing off the 
small fruit. This is done very quickly by experienced workmen. If 
the trees are low, as they should be, most of the work can be done from 
the ground. It is best to work in vertical spaces and take all that can 
be reached from top to bottom without changing position ; then move 
a step or two and take another vertical strip, and so on. 

The distance which should be left between specimens depends upon 
conditions. It is as unsatisfactory to him by rule of inches as it is to 
prune by such a rule. The space to each fruit depends upon the kind, 
the age, vigor and strength of the tree, the size and thrift of the lateral 
or spur which carries the fruit, the moisture supply, the richness of the 
soil, etc. It also depends upon what use is to be made of the fruit, 
because it is possible to have some fruit which is too large for certain 



METHODS OF THINNING FRUITS 127 

dcniands, though this objection does not often arise. The strength of 
the shoot is perhaps the most easily appreciable factor. With peaches, 
for instance, a shortened lateral one-eighth of an inch in diameter 
should only carry one peach, while one one-quarter of an inch in diam- 
eter might mature four good large fruits. It would evidently be 
wrong to work for an arbitrary inch-distance on all sorts of shoots, and 
it will be seen to be just as irrational if it be applied without regard to 
the other conditions of the tree. If, however, a rule must be had, let 
it be this, that the distance between the fruit shall be two and one-half 
times the diameter desired in the fruit. This would fix an arbitrary 
distance, then of four to six inches for apricots and six to eight inches 
for peaches — with other fruits according to their respective sizes, and 
the late varieties with greater distance than early. 

Any such standard, however, considers only the size of the fruit, 
not the strength of the tree, and therefore stops short of one of the 
important ends of thinning, to conserve the strength of the tree for next 
season's fruiting. Fruits might be thus spaced and still the tree be 
overladen, because it may be carrying too many bearing shoots. Cal- 
culate the burden of the tree in this way, for instance: Peaches which 
weigh three to the pound are of fair marketable size ; sixty such 
peaches will fill an ordinary peach box of twenty pounds ; ten to twelve 
such boxes is fruit enough for a good bearing tree six to ten years of 
age. Now count the little peaches you have left on one main branch 
and its laterals, which ought to be about one-tenth of the tree, and thin 
down to about sixty. By doing a few trees in this way and thinking 
of the relation of the bearing wood to the fruit, one will soon get 
a conception of the proper degree of thinning, and proceed to realize 
it as rapidly as the fingers can fly along the branch. 

It is seldom desirable to divide doubles in peaches ; pull both off or 
leave both on, as they may be needed or not to make the load of the 
tree. Clusters of apples or pears should often be reduced to singles, 
except where size is apt to be too great. 

All kinds of fruit are clearly subject to increase of size by thinning, 
but it is with only the larger fruits that the practice prevails at present. 
The dividing line seems to lie upon the prune. With this fruit thinning 
is only done by pruning the tree for the reduction of the number of 
bearing branches, while with some shipping plums hand thinning is 
practiced. Growers are still striving for a prune naturally of larger 
size rather than to have recourse to thinning. 

The practice of thinning partially at first, trusting to further 
removal of fruit later if too much of it survives the natural drop and 
various accidents, is followed by some growers, but the rule is to finish 
at one operation. 

The size of oranges on over-burdened trees can be increased by 
thinning, just as other fruits are enlarged, but it is not systematically 
undertaken, because it is not so necessary and because it is perhaps 
easier to get oranges too large and to be discounted for over-large and 
coarse fruit. Removing part of the fruit from young trees is often 
done — for the good^f the tree, not for the good of the fruit. 



CHAPTER XIII 

CULTIVATION 

It was demonstrated very early in California experience in fruit 
growing", that "clean culture" is generally the proper treatment for 
trees and vines during the growing season, at least. Though the fre- 
quent stirring of the soil and eradication of grass and weeds have been 
advocated by certain horticulturalists for generations and have recently 
been demonstrated to be desirable by careful comparative experiments 
it has nowhere secured such wide adherence as in California. It may 
even be held to be an essential to successful growth of tree and vine in 
most soils and situations in California, and the several advantages of 
clean culture are intensified under our conditions. 

Chief of these advantages is the maintenance of the soil in a condi- 
tion favoring root growth, and the main feature of this condition is the 
retention of the moisture, though regtdation of summer temperature in 
the soil is also involved. Where moisture-retention is not the chief 
concern, because of ample irrigation facilities, and the moderation of 
soil temperature of greater moment, a summer-growing cover crop may 
be of benefit to the trees. In irrigated districts of excessive heat and 
dry air this policy may prevail, but it will be only the exception to the 
rule of clean culture. 

Retaining Moisture by Cultivation. — It is a familiar fact that 
water will rise in a tube of exceeding small diameter very much higher 
than the surface of the body of water in which the tube is held upright. 
The water rises by capillary attraction. A compact soil has extending 
through it, minute spaces, formed by the partial contact of its particles, 
which facilitate the rise of water from moist layers below, in accord- 
ance with the same principle which causes the water to rise in the 
capillary tube. This movement is constantly going on in firm soil, 
and as fast as the top layer is robbed of its moisture by evaporation, 
the water rises from below and it too is evaporated. During the long, 
dry summer, the water rises and is evaporated from a depth of several 
feet in some soils, and the earth, beneath the baking sun heat, becomes 
"dry as a brick." 

When a soil is broken up by cultivation, capillarity is temporarily 
destroyed through the disturbed layer, because the particles are so 
separated that the mutual connection of the minute inter-spaces no 
longer exists. But if it can be roughly broken up, so that the disturbed 
layer takes the form of coarse clods, the air has free access to the upper 
surface of the firm soil beneath them, in which the capillary condition 
still exists, and evaporation proceeds in the same way, though in a 
somewhat less degree, as if there had been no cultivation. It becomes 
evident, then, that the pulverization of the disturbed layer must be so 
complete that the particles are separated and capillarity destroyed, and, 
farther, that the free access of air to the lower point, where capillarity 

128 



RETAINING MOISTURE BY TILLAGE 129 

exists, must be prevented. This is accomplished by the fine loose earth 
which acts as a mulch. When this is attained, only that moisture in the 
upper surface which comes in immediate contact with the air is evapor- 
ated, and the balance is retained for the use of the plant. Plants 
growincf, then, in a well-cultivated soil, have the water in the lower 
soil held for their use. and as fast as they use it the supply is replaced 
through the firm soil below, which evaporation being stopped, remains 
moist and permeable by roots which extend freely, seeking the nourish- 
ment they need. 

Such is a brief outline of the theory which explains the results 
gained by thorough cultivation of the soil, so far, at least, as retention 
of moisture is concerned. The practical demonstration is easy. Go 
into a well-cultivated orchard or vineyard, push aside the soil with the 
foot, and moisture will be found two or three inches from the surface, 
or even less in some soils, while on uncultivated land adjacent, digging 
to the depth of several feet will show nothing but hard earth, baked 
and arid. In such hard-baked earth, moreover, the sun heat is conveyed 
or conducted downward very rapidly during a hot day, so that in some 
cases the roots are seriously injured. When the surface is well tilled, 
it will act like a blanket, preventing a too rapid conveyance of heat 
downward, and thus also diminishing the intensity of evaporation. 

Accurate demonstration of these facts has been secured as the 
result of many moisture determinations in cultivated and uncultivated 
soil by the University of California Agricultural Experiment Station.* 
Very striking exhibition of the condition of trees with and without 
cultivation is found in the engravings which are reproduced herewith. 
Upon the demonstration, the practice in the uncultivated orchard was 
radically changed. The exact determination of moisture present at 
various depths of the soil beneath these contrasted orchards in the 
month of July is as follows : 

Cultivated. 
Depth in soil. Per cont. 

First foot 6.4 

Second foot 5.8 

Third foot 6.4 

Fourth foot 6.5 

Fifth foot 6.7 

Sixth foot 6.0 

Totals, six feet 6.3 756 4.2 512 

This shows a gain of nearly fifty per cent of soil moisture by cultiva- 
tion. 

Necessity of Adequate Cultivation. — It has been very fully dem- 
onstrated by California experience that adequate depth of tilth must 
be attained. The depth of cultivation, or the thickness of the dust- 
mulch, as some like to call it, must be sufficient to prevent the access 
of the dry air to the firm soil below. At the East, where they have a 
moister air a thin mulch may answer, but in California, with a thirsty 
air for such a protracted period, there must be deeper tilth. Two or 

•Bulletin 121. 





Uncultivated. 




Tons per acre. 


Per cent. 


Tons 


> per acre. 


128 


4.3 




86 


116 


4.4 




88 


128 


3.9 




78 


130 


5.1 




102 


134 


3.4 




•68 


120 


4.5 




90 



130 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

three inches of dust spread over a hardpan layer formed in some soils 
by cultivation, will not retain moisture well in California. The cultiva- 
tor should go twice that depth, ordinarily, and then the result will be 
accomplished if it is done frequently enough to prevent the re-firming 
of the surface by atmospheric moisture or by the rise of moisture from 
below. The exact significance of depth in the loose, surface layer has 
also been demonstrated by moisture determination in the subsoil at 
different points by the California Experiment Station, as follows : 



Percentage of Moisture in Cultivated Loam Soil. 




Depth. Niles. Santa Maria. 

Three inches 5.4 5.3 

Six inches 6. .3 8.5 


Venturia. 

8.3 
9.3 







These may be accepted, probably, as average results : Variation 
may occur in soils of different characters. The capillarity in a heavy 
soil is vastly greater than in a light soil. The difficulty of securing a 
pulverized surface layer is also greater in the heavy soil. The poorer 
the pulverization, the deeper the layer must be. Naturally, then, grow- 
ers' practice will vary. The rule will remain that there must be depth 
enough to secure effective protection of the firm soil beneath from 
agencies promoting evaporation. 

Loss of Moisture by Weed Growth. — One of the most active 
agencies for the exhaustion of moisture from the subsoil is the growth 
of weeds. To cultivate the soil in winter and spring, and then to allow 
a summer growth of weeds to "shade the soil" is a great error. Al- 
though under cover of rank weeds moisture many appear even at the 
surface and convey the impression of moisture-saving, the fact is, as 
fully demonstrated by experience and actual experiment, the moisture 
in the lower layers of the soil is reduced and trees are thus robbed of 
their supply. Weed growth must be resolutely suppressed during the 
dry season, if one has to operate by rainfall or desires to make best 
use of irrigation water. 

Moisture Storage in the Soil. — Conservation of moisture in the 
soil is not only the surety of the current season's growth and fruitful- 
ness, but is the safeguard against injury from the years of deficient 
rainfall which occiir now and then in California. The moisture supply 
is equalized by this storage of the soil, and a surplus from the liberal 
rainfall of one year is held over to supply the lack of the next. Of 
course, the well-cultivated surface is also well calculated to catch water. 
While from a hard surface much of a heavy rainfall flows off quickly 
to a lower level before it can penetrate, a loose soil, if sufficiently deep, 
retains all that falls upon it, except the excess, which disappears by 
drainage. 

It has sometimes been held by California orchardists that planting 
some tall-growing crop, like corn, so as to shade the young tree and 
the ground around it, is an advantage. This is a great mistake. Though 
some rich, moist soils may afford moisture enough to grow both the 
tree and the corn, it is a fact that in most cases the growth of the corn 



INTER-CROPPING IN ORCHARDS 131 

is made at the expense of the tree, and sometimes ahnost costs its life 
and thrift. It has been amply shown by investigation that though shad- 
ing ground by a leafy growth may make the surface layer of the soil 
moister, the lower layers are invariably made drier, and it is in these 
lower layers that the tree seeks its sustenance. The young tree should 
be shaded as has been described in the chapter on planting, and not by 
a growing plant. 



GROWING CROPS BETWEEN TREES AND VINES 

The possible advantage of a cover growth of clover in regions of 
high heat and ample moisture has been noted at the opening of this 
chapter. The rule, however, must be : Grow nothing whatever between 
the trees if you desire the full success of the latter. As with all rules, 
this one may admit of exceptions. 

Inter-cultures in orchard or vineyard may be allowed under certain 
conditions of the soil and the purse of the grower. If the soil is deep 
and moist and rich, the cost of planting and cultivation, and sometimes 
more, may be made by growing a crop among your trees. Of course, 
if irrigation is available, much more can be done in this direction than 
if dependent upon natural supplies of water. 

There is much difference as to crops in amount of injury they may 
do to the trees. Growing alfalfa, without irrigation, has been known to 
kill out an orchard, and yet alfalfa growing in an orchard under condi- 
tions may be a great advantage, as described in the next chapter. Grain 
is less dangerous, but still is objectionable, both because of exhaus- 
tion of soil and moisture, and because of danger to trees from heat 
deflected from strow and stubble. The crops least injurious, because 
of their requirements, and because of the constant cultivation of them, 
checks the loss of moisture by evaporation are corn, beans, potatoes, 
beets, carrots, etc., squashes, and other members of the melon family, 
onions, and other shallow-rooting vegetables. In the growth of these, 
however, there should be a width of several feet of well-cultured soil 
on all sides of the tree, unoccupied. 

In soils exceptionally rich and deep, and where rainfall is abundant, 
inter-cultures of small fruits or vegetables may be carried on for a 
long series of years with profit both from the trees and the inter-culture. 
In similar deep, rich soils, with irrigation, immense crops of small 
fruits and vegetables, even as high as twelve to twenty-four tons of 
tomatoes per acre have been taken from between orchard rows, and 
one hundred and fifty sacks of onions per acre from between the rows 
of a strawberry plantation. In Ventura county some fields of lima 
beans, in favorable years, have paid over $70 per acre — grown between 
young trees. In other parts of the State considerable amounts of peas 
for sale to canners are grown between the rows in young orchards. 
This crop is especially desirable when good sale is assured, because the 
plant is hardy and can make a good part of its growth during the rainy 
season and the ground be cleaned up and well cultivated early in the 
summer. As beans and peas arc legumes, their roots enrich the soil, 
as will be noted in the chapter on fertilization. 



132 CALIFORNIA p-RUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

How Exhaustion by Inter-Culture May Be Avoided. — But all 

inter-cultures are a loan made by the trees to the orchardist. The term 
may be very long and the rate of interest very small in some cases, but 
sooner or later the trees will need restitution to the soil of the plant 
food removed by inter-cropping. This may be accomplished by the 
use of fertilizers. Still the rule that the trees or vines should have all 
the ground is generally true. It is also true that on merely ordinary 
soils, trusting to rainfall, or on shallow soils, trusting in part in irriga- 
tion, the trees or vines should have the full strength of the land and all 
the help which can be given them in the shape of thorough cultivation. 

METHODS OF TILLAGE 

In general terms the main objects of tillage of orchard and vine- 
yard are two : Winter cultivation for moisture reception, and summer 
cultivation for moisture retention. 

Wherever early winter plowing can be done without too great 
danger of soil washing, it affords the best available means of admitting 
water to the great reservoir in the lower levels a deep soil. Too fre- 
quently large volumes of rain water, enriched by air-washing as it falls 
and by fine soil-particles as it flows, are allowed to run ofif into the 
country drainage, with the double loss of fertility and moisture to 
the fruit grower. Deep penetration of winter rains should be, in all 
safe ways, promoted. Cultivation for retention has already been 
strongly urged and is quite generally recognized. 

To serve these main purposes there are two main divisions of prac- 
tice in this State, each of whic|i has variations of greater or less 
importance. 

First : Winter plowing followed by frequent use of cultivator and 
pulverizer in summer. 

Second : Use of cultivator at intervals both winter and summer, 
following, if needed, with pulverizer in the summer. 

The main features of each division of practice, and some of the 
claims by which each method is supported by its advocates, will be 
noted. 

Plovv^ing Orchard and Vineyard. — There is considerable varia- 
tion in the practice of plowing orchard and vineyard, in the kinds of 
plows employed, and the times chosen for the work. Some plow but 
once, toward spring, whenever the ground is in suitable condition ; 
and, if there is much growth of weeds and clovers, a looped chain is 
run from the plow to the end of the evener to aid in drawing under 
the tall growth. Sometimes, however, the growth gets so rank before 
the soil is in condition to plow that the weeds are mown before 
plowing. Where but one plowing is done, the soil is usually thrown 
away from the trees and afterwards is leveled back by harrowing or 
cultivating. If this practice is adopted, care should be taken that the 
soil is properly returned about the tree roots, for injury is sometimes 
done by bringing the roots too near the surface, which is soon after- 
wards intensely heated by the sunshine. 



POINTS TO GAIN IN PLOWING 133 

It is undoubtedly better practice to plow earlier, when the j^reen 
stuff j;ets a g-ood start, but is still not too high to turn under handily. 
In this practice the weed stems are less woody, and they easily decay 
and act as a fertilizer. Where early plowing is practiced, it is usual 
to plow again when the second growth of weeds reaches the proper 
state in the spring. When two plowings are given, the earth is usually 
thrown away from the trees in the first plowing, and returned toward 
the trees in the second plowing. But this order is sometimes reversed 
in situations where rainfall is heavy and the soil retentive, for the dead 
furrow between the rows often acts as a surface drain to carry off 
surplus water, which is thus prevented from standing around the tree 
roots. In all modes of plowing it is desirable that before the summer 
heat comes, the surface be leveled as completely as possible. 

Too much stress can not be laid upon the importance of plowing 
when the soil is in good condition and not otherwise. To disregard 
this is bad enough in all soils, but it is a grievous mistake to work 
any of the clayey soils when they are out of condition. If too wet, 
they are puddled by the plow and dry down in hard clods, impenetrable 
by air, and even resist water itself for a long time. When clods are 
thus formed, it may require long effort to bring the soil back to a good 
friable condition. The cultivation of adobe is one of the problems of 
California agriculture. The more refractory it is, the more particular 
care is needed to take it when it is in proper condition to work. To 
work it when perfectly dry is simply impossible, and if it is plowed when 
too wet and sticky, it becomes hard, lumpy, and altogether unmanage- 
able. The condition which favors best results by tillage must be learned 
by experience. 

Another mistake apt to be made where the orchard or vineyard 
is but one of the branches of a mixed farm, is to put aside the plowing 
until all the field work is done, and in some seasons the soil in the 
orchard has become so dry that it turns up in large clods which are 
afterwards partially reduced by the harrow, but never put in the fine 
tilth which should be secured for the retention of moisture and other- 
wise to encourage the growth and productiveness of the tree. 

Breaking up Hardpan. — Those who advocate the use of the plow, 
claim several advantages for it. The chief is that more thorough tilth 
can be secured. In most, but not all soils, there is formed by cultiva- 
tion an artificial hardpan at whatever depth the implement attains, if 
this depth can be kept the same for many successive cultivations. This 
hardpan, in some soils at least, becomes impervious to water and is 
otherwise an injury to the growth of the trees. It occurs in irrigated 
and unirrigated land alike, but probably is more quickly formed by 
irrigation. When continuous summer cultivation is practiced, the hard- 
pan will be found at whatever depth the teeth uniformity reach. The 
remedy is to plow in winter just below this hardpan layer and thus 
break it up, and then by the action of the air and rains it is reduced, 
and cultivation may proceed as before. Where the hardpan is formed 
by the plow, the ground should be plowed shallow one year and deeply 
the next, thus alternating from year to year. 



134 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

Green Manuring. — Another advantage in the use of the plow is, 
as has already been mentioned, the turning under of the growth of 
weeds, grass, and clover as a green manure. Many growers attach 
considerable importance to this, and some, who have orchards in which 
winter growth has been killed out by long cultivation, are seeking for 
a quickly-growing crop which they can sow with the first rains and 
secure growth enough to turn under with the winter plowing. This 
consideration will be further presented in the chapter on fertilization. 

Plowing Hillside to Prevent Washing. — Where the slope of the 
land is sharp, there is much danger from washing during the rainy 
season, if the hillside is not terraced or furnished with ditches carefully 
laid out on contour lines to carry the water down on a gentle grade. 
The old plan of plowing furrows one above another around the hill to 
check the flow and let the water down easily, is often found treacherous 
unless one is able to strike good grades, because of the liability to col- 
lection of water at certain points and the subsequent breaking away 
and washing. Recently some of the foothill growers have adopted the 
plan of plowing furrows seven or eight feet apart straight down the 
hill in the direction of its deepest descent. The rainfall is thus dis- 
tributed over the ground so that not much water is collected at any one 
place and the harm done by washing will not amount to much. Hillside 
work differs according to character of soil and of local rainfall and 
conference with experienced men in the region will usually afford the 
beginner the best suggestions of method. In some localities, the plow- 
ing of a few furrows at intervals to assist in penetration and the growth 
of a cover crop during the winter to assist in binding the soil, will be 
found better than any attempt at the early plowing, which may work 
admirably on level lands. 

The Best Plow. — For plowing orchards and vineyards many 
kinds of plows are used, including the ordinary one- and two-horse 
walking plows, single and double sulky or riding plows, and gang plows 
of different kinds. Recently disk plows and harrows have become very 
popular. In several of the leading fruit districts there are plows made 
in the local shops which are patterned to meet the different soils pre- 
vailing. Which is the best plow is a question which can not be 
answered, it must be determined by local conditions, and the best way 
to get information is to consult the experienced cultivators of the 
locality. 

Avoiding Injury to Trees and Vines. — The great problem is to 
use the plow so as not to injure the trees and vines. Injury to the 
roots is one ground on which those who advocate the banishment of 
the plow from the orchard and vineyard base their opposition, as will 
appear more fully presently. It is the usual practice to run the plow 
shallower when approaching the stem of the tree or vine, and this is 
easily done when vising a riding plow or a two-horse walking plow 
between the rows and finishing up near the trees with a single-horse 
walking plow, which is a common practice. The injury by the plow, to 
which especial reference is now made, is that to the bark of the tree or 
to the vine stump. 



AVOIDING INJURY TO TREES 135 

Makers of the special orchard and vineyard plows have recently 
made them adjustable so that the plow will work either side of the 
central line of draft, and these imi)roved tools have rendered obsolete 
the early contrivances for accomplishing the result with common field 
plows. 

Extensions of disks and of spring-tooth harrows are often made by 
attaching the parts to the ends of a central piece in such a way that 
the horses walk in the centers and the cultivators work under the low 
branches and very near to the stems of the trees. These are chiefly 
used with citrus trees whose foliage and fruits are permitted to grow 
very near to the soil surface. 

Flat Hames and a Spreader. — Among the worst things for use 
among trees arc the pointed iron hames which are found on most har- 
nesses. They often seriously bark the branches under which the horse 
passes, and should be dispensed with. An arrangement widely used 
consists in having broad leather tugs and hames with only one long iron 
loop on the swell of the hame. The tug is passed around the hame and 
the end is brought through the iron loop from the under side so that 
the draft will hold the tug tight between the collar and the hame and 
the end between the iron staple and the pulling part of the trace. A 
spreader is put between the tugs ; it is made of a hard-wood stick six- 
teen to eighteen inches long; a hole is bored in each end large enough 
for a two-inch screw, a hole punched in each trace about twelve inches 
from the rear end, and the tugs are screwed to the ends of the spreader, 
and the ends of the tugs attached to the plow clevis. This gives no iron 
or wooden surfaces at all, either on harness or whiffletree, to strike 
the bark. 

Improved Singletrees. — Later than these came the orchard and 
vineyard singletrees, invented and patened by Californians, which are 
widely used and sold in all stores of the fruit growing districts. 

Dispensing with Doubletrees. — Still other inventions which 
admit the use of two horses even close up to the trees, because they 
dispense entirely with whiffletrees and tugs, are known as the steel 
harness, Eastern inventions, which have secured the approval of some 
of our leading growers, for use in orchard and vineyard. The plow is 
attached to the steel yoke by a chain running between the horses. With 
them it is possible to work quite close to the trees and vines, and is es- 
pecially desirable in the vineyard in working close to the vines when 
they have grown out about two feet, which is a difficult job with the 
old-style harness. 

SUMMER TREAT.MENT OE PLOWED ORCHARDS AND 

VINEYARD 

Where the orchard or vineyard is plowed twice during the winter, 
the land should remain after the first plowing as the plow leaves it. 
The moistening and aeration during the winter have good effect upon 
the soil both chemically and mechanically. 

If but one plowing is done, when the chief rains are supposed to be 
over, there must be full effort put forth to reduce the soil to good tilth. 



136 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

and to level the surface as much as possible. This is done by harrowing 
with one of the several improved harrows which are now generally in- 
troduced and found very effective. They act in cultivating, clod crush- 
ing, and leveling, in a most satisfactory manner. They are too well 
known to need description. Each has its advocates and its adaptations 
to certain soils. As with plows, so with harrows and cultivators, the 
best for one soil may not be the best for another, and local inquiry 
among experienced fruit growers will be the best guide for the new- 
comer. In addition to the excellent implements brought from the East- 
ern States, there are others of California invention and manufacture 
which have very marked local adaptations, and almost every fruit 
region in California has some embodiment of local inventive genius in 
the form of implements of tillage. 

The secret of success in handling the heavier soils in spring working 
is to secure as perfect surface pulverization as possible without com- 
pacting the soil. Light soils need a certain amount of firming after 
plowing, or else there is too free access of air and too great drying out. 
For these and other reasons, the grower has to study his soil and learn 
from observation the methods which succeed best with it. The practice 
which gave success under certain conditions might not be well adapted 
under other conditions. The use of the roller is a striking example of 
this fact. In some orchards the roller is a benefit, in others a decided 
injury. Its chief effect is compacting the surface layer, which is only 
desirable on very coarse open soils. The long-tooth harrow accom- 
plishes a very marked compacting of the soil to the depth it reaches, 
and often settles the lower layer too closely and causes it to run together 
too solidly if rain follows. The modern cultivators, clod-crushers, disk- 
harrows, etc., are superior in effect, each in the soil to which its action 
is most desirable. 

After working down the soil after plowing, the cultivator is relied 
upon to kill the weeds, break up the crust which may form after spring 
rains or after irrigation, and to prevent the compacting of the surface 
layer of the soil from any causes. 



CULTIVATION WITHOUT PLOWING 

There are orchards in California which have not been plowed for 
years — in some cases the plow has not been used since the trees were 
planted. Instances of this kind are to be found both in irrigated and 
unirrigated land. It depends largely upon the mechanical condition 
and disposition of the soil whether the practice will give satisfactory 
results. It can not be trusted on land prone to develop hardpan, as has 
already been considered, and yet the term "cultivation" has taken such 
a wide range in this State, and the tools have reached such efficiency, 
that there is not as much difference as formerly between the plow and 
the cultivator, except that the former turns the soil and the latter stirs 
without turning. For some who oppose the use of the plow, use a 
chisel-tooth cultivator, cutting to a depth of eight inches in the spring, 
but at other times of the year they are not more than half as deep. 
This treatment would tend to dispose of hardpan. However this may 



PURPOSES OF CULTIVATION 137 

be, and what the special nature of their soils, there are fruit growers, 
both in northern and southern California, who have for years trusted 
almost wholly to the cultivator, cutting to a depth of three or four 
inches, and keep their orchards throughout the year almost in the same 
state of tilth, never allowing a weed to grow. This practice is, how- 
ever, becoming less prevalent, and for certain soils the question is 
practically settled in the minds of nearly all orchardists, while for other 
soils there is still doubt. For the heavier soils, which continuous shal- 
low cultivation is apt to render too compact, it is necessary to have re- 
course to the plow to open the land for proper aeration and penetration 
of moisture which otherwise would be largely lost by surface run-off. 
The lighter soils do not require this and they seem to do well with con- 
tinuous use of the cultivator. It is beginning to be clearly seen, how- 
ever, that this treatment tends toward the decrease of the humus and 
the consequent impoverishment of the soil. Its water-holding capacity 
is also lessened. These facts have induced some growers to change 
their practice and to take up the plow during late winter or early spring 
to cover in the growth of green .stuff which they allow to grow instead 
of frequently destroying it with the winter use of the cultivator. Either 
the fall and spring plowing, or both, followed by the summer use of 
the cultivator, the most rational and satisfactory practice for most 
of our deciduous orchards, though there are local conditions and cir- 
cumstances under which different procedure is preferable. 



SUMMER CULTIVATION 

Whatever the winter policy may be, the essential point in summer 
cutivation is to preserve the surface layer of pulvcriacd earth. It will 
not do to have a few inches of clogs, from the size of a pea to that of a 
goose egg, resting on a hard surface. The finer the pulverization the 
shallower can be the surface layer, and vice versa, and this is probably 
one reason why in practice the work of the plow is, in so many situa- 
tions, found the best foundation upon which to rest the years' cultiva- 
tion. 

In order to secure this finely-pulverized layer, it is sometimes neces- 
sary to use what is called a "rubber." where there are many clods which 
are merely displaced by the harrow or cultivator. There are different 
styles, and they are generally home-made. The most common form is 
made of two-inch plank in lengths of three or four feet, bolted or spiked 
to pieces of four-by-four-inch scantling running crosswise, the edges 
of the planks lapped like the clapboards which are used for weather 
boarding. As these edges are drawn over the surface, the clods are 
rubbed into tilth if they are not too hard and dry. 

But this nibbing may be very tmdesirable if it leaves the surface 
smooth and polished. It may reflect the sunhcat even to tree-burning, 
and is apt to form an evaporating surface, which is most to be avoided. 
The best finish for the land is that produced bv a light, fine-toothed 
harrow, and an attachment of this kind is provided with various clod 
crushers and cultivators. The result is a surface af loose earth, flat and 
fine, which approaches very closely an ideal condition. 



138 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

There is less difference than formerly in the use of the harrow or 
cultivator during the summer. Still some are content to use the culti- 
vator only as a weed-killer, and after the weeds cease to grow and the 
spring showers are over, the cultivator is laid aside and the land left 
unstirred until the following winter. This, of course, refers to unirri- 
gated ground, for wherever irrigation is practiced a cultivator must fol- 
low, except on hillsidesi where the surface is left undisturbed after the 
irrigation furrows are made until the beginning of the dry season. 
It is a fact, however, that even if no rain falls, the soil becomes com- 
pacted to a certain degree, and the best way to imprison the greatest 
possible amount of moisture below is to run the cultivator at intervals 
all through the dry season. It should run shallow and only stir the sur- 
face layer. The experience of the most successful growers is that fre- 
quent stirring without, however, bringing new soil to the air, is the 
best-paying practice. 

WHAT IS THOROUGH CULTIVATION 

As clean, thorough cultivation has been approved, it may be desir- 
able to attempt to define the term. It can, however, only be approxi- 
mately done, because of the great difference in individual views and 
practices. Some indication of the operations which are contemplated 
may be had in the following specifications upon which contracts have 
been let for care of orchard : First, plowing away from the trees, fol- 
lowed by harrowing; second, plowing toward the trees, followed by 
harrowing ; ten summer workings with cultivator ; three working with 
shallow cultivator or weed-cutter ; five hand hoeings around the trees. 
The contract intends the most complete and perfect working of the soil 
and specifies the above merely that there may be no difference of opin- 
ion between owner and contractor. 

In cases where the land is infected with morning-glory, weekly cut- 
ting with sharp, flat teeth beneath the surface is stipulated for in some 
cases, and this seems about the only way to cope with this formidable 
trespasser. 

CULTIVATION FOR WEED KILLING 

Cultivation for weed killing is a minor consideration in California, 
because cultivation for moisture conservation effectually disposes of 
most of them, and weeds do not start readily in the earth-mulch during 
the dry season. There are, however, a few most persistent pests which 
require heroic measures. Johnson grass and morning-glory are the 
most prominent of these. The only successful treatment consists in 
cutting constantly with a weed-cutter (a sharp horizontal knife), oper- 
ated so as to pass under the whole surface and run so often that the 
plant is never allowed to show a shoot on the surface. It is of no use 
merely to cultivate or "weed-cut" as for other weeds. This spreads 
the pest more and more ; but if the rising shoots are continually cut 
under the surface, and never allowed to get the light, it will kill the 
plant surely, but it may take two seasons to do it. Weed-cutting knives 



SOIL COVERING TO HOLD MOISTURE 139 

of this description are usually contrived by local smiths and are attached 
to sleds or fitted with plow handles, or used with a pair of thills and 
cultivator handles or other rigg^ins: as the operator may choose. The 
vital point is a blade of sheet steel, very sharp and rig^j^ed to run just 
under the surface. It must be used as often as once each week. 



MULCHING A SUBSTITUTE FOR CULTIVATION 

The use of a mulch or covering of the ground with a litter of light 
materials to prevent evaporation, is practised to a small extent in this 
State. Though mainly used for berries of different kinds, recourse has 
also been had to mulching by vineyardists. The materials used are 
various, such as partly-rotted straw, coarse manure, damaged hay. corn- 
husks, corn-stalks, vine prunings and leaves, and even fine brush from 
adjacent thickets. The practice has been found of greatest value on 
hillsides where cultivation is difficult, and danger of washing of loose 
soil is great. There are cases where vines have been grown several 
years in this way to the satisfaction of the owner. The danger of fire 
in our dry climate when the surface is covered to a depth of several 
inches with a dry mulch is considerable. As a rule, the mulch employed 
by the California grower is a perfect pulverization of the surface soil. 



CHAPTER XIV 

FERTILIZERS FOR TREES AND VINES 

It was a popular doctrine among early Californians that California 
soils would never need fertilization, and that there is something in our 
soil and climate which releases us forever from repaying anything to 
the ground for the wealth of produce which we take from it. Such a 
view is, of course, without foundation, and yet it is not difficult to see 
how it arose. Early attempts to enrich the soil by the turning under 
of coarse stable manure, as is done in other countries, was undertaken 
here on light soil in a region rather short of rainfall. The manure did 
not decompose, and its coarse materials made a soil, already too light 
to retain moisture well, so open and porous that its moisture was quickly 
carried away by evaporation, and crops did not grow so well as upon 
adjacent land which had not been manured. So the fiat went forth 
against manure. The corrals* became undisturbed guano deposits, and 
manure piles were fired in dry weather to get the soil poison out of the 
way. Innumerable tons of bones were gathered and ground in San 
Francisco and shipped away to countries which need fertilizers. 
Nature did much to foster the popular delusion, for field crops were 
gloriously large, and trees and vines grew rampantly and bore fruit the 
weight of which they were unable to sustain. How could there be more 
conclusive evidence that manure was a detriment to California soils ? 

A few decades of experience have swept away such fallacies and 
now California growers, especially those handling citrus fruits, are not 
only freely investing in commercial fertilizers but are buying and ship- 
ping considerable distances all available animal manures. They are also 
untiring students of the art of fertilization and the sciences underlying 
it. It was in response to their demand that the California Legislature 
of 1903 passed a fertilizer control law giving the University Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station regulation of the trade in fertilizing materials. 
All dealers are required to register and submit samples of their brands 
and there is constant inspection to detect departures. Semi-annual re- 
ports are published for public information and these, with special in- 
structions for taking samples when purchasers desire analyses on their 
own account, can be had by application to the Experiment Station at 
Berkeley. The total amount of sales reported under the law for the 
year ending June 30, 1912, was 50,995 tons. 

It is foreign to our purpose to discuss the general subject of the use 
of fertilizers in California, and the changes in belief and practice which 
have recently gained ground. Of course, the marked falling off in the 
yield of shallow-rooting cereals gave the first unmistakable intimation 
that there was nothing wrong about the old theory of the perpetual 
youth of California soils. The lands used for fruit are sometimes slow 
to show exhaustion, because trees are deep feeders, and the soils, as 
they are often the very best and deepest of the State, selected for fruit 
because of that very character, possess, in an eminent degree lasting 

*Inclosures for livestock of any kind. 

140 



WHEN TO USE FERTILIZERS 141 

properties, as is shown in the chapter on the fruit soils of Cahfornia. 
But certain of these soils are already showing the need of refreshment, 
and intelligent growers are quick to minister to the lands which are 
giving them such generous returns, as they can well aflford to do. 

WHEN IS FERTILIZATION NECESSARY? 

Though the use of fertilizers by our fruit growers is beginning, it 
should be plainly stated that at present, except perhaps with citrus 
fruit trees, or the oldest orchards of other fruits, it is not yet the rule 
that such applications are necessary. There are some soils which are 
really too rich for fruit. There is sometimes an over-rank growth of 
wood, which delays or prevents the formation of fruit buds, and there 
is a marvelous development of fruit which is inconsistent with the high- 
est quality. For this reason the grower should not conclude, from the 
foregoing general remarks concerning the need of fertilization in Cali- 
fornia, that he must manure his soil whether it needs it or not. Espe- 
cially is this the case with young trees, in which the wood growth is 
easily over-stimulated. As with irrigation, so in fertilization ; the tree 
or vine itself will give the observing grower hints as to its needs, and if 
the growth of wood and color of foliage are such as obviously indicate 
health and vigor, it may be concluded that the plant needs nothing but 
good cultivation and intelligent pruning. 

Usually cases of over-rich ground will cure themselves as the trees 
attain size and full bearing, and it is then that fertilization may be 
necessary. When the tree or vine which has been properly pruned and 
cultivated is not able to mature a good weight of well-developed fruit, 
and make a satisfactory wood growth, usually at the same time showing 
some degree of distress by the color of its foliage, it needs help ; and 
if the grower is sure that the trouble is not from lack of moisture in 
the soil, he should bestir himself in the manuring of his orchard or 
vineyard. In examining the soil for moisture, one should dig deeply, for 
there have been cases of moisture near the surface, and drouth below. 

WHAT FERTILIZERS APPLY TO FRUIT TREES AND VINES 

A discussion of this subject from a chemist's point of view is 
beyond the scope of this volume. The results of research at the Uni- 
versity Experiment Station at Berkeley are summarized in the treatise 
on soils by Dr. E. W. Hilgard. who maintains the position that the 
most intelligent and economical choice of fertilizers is to be made 
after ascertaining by analysis in what constituents the soil is deficient 
and in what it is well supplied. Some applications made in conformity 
with suggestions based upon analysis have proved very satisfactory. 
But as soils vary within narrow limits of area, there must be analysis 
for each soil in question. 

Approaching the matter of choosing fertilizers without soil analysis, 
the method by local trial is open. In this recourse there is danger 
of error, as pointed out by Dr. Hilgard, arising from local differences 
in soil and subsoil, and must be checked by several check plots so 
interposed between the others as to not only check them by direct com- 



142 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

parison, and to prevent the washing of fertiHzers from one fertilized 
plot to another, but they must also be compared, first of all, among 
themselves, to determine what is the normal product of the unfertilized 
land. It will frequently be found that these unfertilized check 
plots differ more widely between themselves than do the fertilized 
ones from them or from each other. Systematic experimentation, 
on plots arranged to avoid such errors, has been continued for several 
years by the University Experiment Station in the citrus district of 
Southern California. Results from this work, not yet available, can 
be secured, when ready, by correspondence with the Station at Berkeley. 
It is also hoped by this work to secure some knowledge of what specific 
effects on growth or fruiting are caused by the use of particular sub- 
stances. Statements now freely made along this line are largely 
conjectural. 

From these statements it must appear that the prescription of 
fertilizers is not an easy matter. Disappointments will naturally be 
encountered, but unquestionably the advantage is on the side of patient 
trial and wise investment in fertilizers honestly made and honestly 
sold. The observing grower must learn all that he can from experience. 
It is obviously the duty of the grower to constantly study fertilizer 
questions as presented in books and journals and to be alert for obser- 
vation of the behavior of his own trees with the applications he may 
make. The publications of responsible fertilizer manufacturers and 
dealers, also convey important information when read discriminately. 

Though the deficiencies of the soil, as learned by analysis, or by 
practical test, must be the basis of prescription of fertilizers, the 
analyses of fruits, as showing the special needs of the plants, are of 
the highest importance. The following analyses of the different fruits, 
containing in each case, skin, pulp, and seeds, are almost entirely from 
California-grown specimens, and are supposed to represent an average 
composition of the fruits named. 

Quantities of soil ingredients withdrawn by various fruits 

Compiled from analyses by G. E. Colby, University of California. 

Fresh Fruit Total Ash Potash Lime Phosphoric Acid Nitrogen 

1000 Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 

Almondst 17.29 9.95 1.04 2.04 7.01 

Apricots 5.08 3.01 .16 .66 1.94 

Apples 2.64 1.40 .11 .33 1.05 

Bananas 10.78 6.80 .10 .17 .97 

Cherries 4.82 2.77 .20 .72 2.29 

Chestnutst 9.52 3.67 1.20 1.58 6.40 

Figs 7.81 4.69 .85 .86 2.38 

Grapes 5.U0 2.55 .25 .11 1.26 

Lemons 5.26 2.54 1.55 • .58 1.51 

Olives 13.50 9.11 2.43 1.25 5.60 

Oranges 4.32 2.11 .97 .53 1.83 

Peaches 5.30 3.94* .14* .85* 1.20* 

Pears 2.50 1.34 .19 .34 .90 

Primes, French 4.86 3.10 22 .68 1.82 

Plums 5.35 3.41* .25* .75* 1.81 

Walnutst 12.98 8.18 1.55 1.47 5.41 

t Including hulls. * Estimated. 



HOW TO USE noXES FOR FRUIT TREES 143 

FIRST AID TO THE INJURED SOIL 

Based upon the clear characteristics of CaHfornia soils as already 
indicated in the chapter on that subject, Dr. Hilgard advises that any 
large-scale fertilization should begin with phosphates and nitrogen, 
and, should this not prove fully satisfactory, then with potash also, this 
being the order in which these substances are likely to become deficient 
in most of our soils under cultivation. In the course of time potash 
fertilization will become widely necessary in this State; in fact some 
California soils are naturally deficient in potash. 



AVAILABLE SUPPLIES OF PHOSPHATES 

Phosphatic manures which are clearly promotive of freer fruiting 
of trees and vines, are now being supplied to fruit growers by 
importers and manufacturers located in various California cities, and 
results attained by their use are such as to warrant continuance. They 
are bone and rock phosphates, which are transformed into superphos- 
phates, and with nitrogenous matter added, serve as good applications 
both for growth and fruiting. 

Home-Made Bone Manures. — ]\Iuch good bone manure can be 
made by collecting bones, heads, horns, feet, etc., from butchers' shops 
or elsewhere. How to make such material available, by simple proceed- 
ings, is described by Prof. Hilgard as follows : 

1. Bones put into a well-kept (moistened) manure pile will themselves grad- 
ually decay and disappear, enriching the manure to that extent. 

2. Raw bones may be bodily buried in the soil around the trees; if placed 
at a sufficient depth, beyond the reach of the summer's heat and drouth and 
cultivating tools, the rootlets will cluster around each piece, and, in course of a 
few years, consume it entirely. 

3. Bones may be packed in moist wood ashes, best mixed with a little quick- 
lime, the mass kept moist but never dripping. In a few months the hardest bones 
v/ill be reduced to a fine mush, which is as effectual as super-phosphate. Con- 
centrated lye and soil may be used instead of ashes. In this process the nitrogen 
of the bones is lost, gomg off in the form of ammonia, the odor of which is 
very perceptible in the tank used. 

For neither of these processes should the bones be burned. The burning of 
bones, is an unqualified dcstriment to their effectiveness, which can only be undone 
bv the use of sulphuric acid 

4. Bones steamed for three or four hours in a boiler under a pressure of 
thirty-five to fifty pounds, can, after drying, be readily crushed in an ordinary 
barley-crushing mill, and thus be rendered more convenient for use. Practically, 
very little of the nitrogen (glue) of the bones need be thus lost. 



POTASH 

Though, as already stated, potash is commonly in good supply 
in California soils, it is very clear from experience that additions of 
potash, perhaps in more available form, are advisable. The fruit 
analyses already given show that the use of this substance by fruit 
trees and vines is very large. Recent experiments seem to indicate 
that potash ministers directly to the quality of the fruit in soine cases. 



144 CALIFORNIA FRUITS! HOW TO GROW THEM 

Ashes from wood fires are the most available source of potash, but it 
is a mistake to regard wood ashes as valuable only for their potash 
contents. Professor Storer has found by analysis of a number of 
samples of house ashes, that selected samples contain 8>4 per cent of 
real potash, and 2 per cent of phosphoric acid, or say 4>^ pounds of 
potash and one pound of phosphoric per bushel. Hence there is 
enough potash and phosphoric acid to make a bushel of ashes worth 
twenty or twenty-five cents, and besides that, some ten or fifteen cents 
additional may not be allowed for the "alkali power" of the ashes, i. e., 
the force of alkalinity which enables ashes to rot weeds and to ferment 
peat. 

These facts suggest to the fruit grower that he should _ carefully 
preserve all home-made wood ashes and apply them to the soil at once, 
or, if stored for future application, be sure that they are kept dry. 
Leached ashes from the lye barrel, or ashes from open piles, leached 
by rains, are hardly worth handling. Coal ashes are almost devoid 
of fertilizing properties, though, if finely divided, as in the case of 
coals burning completely, their use is beneficial, mechanically, on clay 
soils, in the same way that fine sand would be. 

The chief supplies of potash salts are now brought from Germany, 
but a strenuous effort is being made to develop a local supply from 
sea-weeds and by developing deposits in the arid regions of this 
country, 

NITROGEN 

Nitrogen ministers directly to the vegetative activity of the plant 
and this is a wonderful stimulant of wood growth and foliage. Sup- 
plies of this substance can be had from animal manures, which will 
be considered later. The effect of stable manure upon the soil and 
the plant is notably strengthening and restorative. For this reason 
money and effort are often well expended in securing it even beyond 
the cost of the equivalent of the plant food which it contains. Another 
natural form of nitrogen in cover crops or green manures will be 
discussed presently. Of commercial forms of nitrogen, tankage and 
dried blood are highly esteemed for orchard use, and there is large 
use also of Chile saltpeter, which contains about sixteen per cent of 
nitrogen, in immediately available form. From two to four hundred 
pounds per acre is the usual application, and it should be evenly dis- 
tributed over the ground, not collected near the trees. Sulphate of 
ammonia is another available source of nitrogen obtainable in com- 
merce; a good commercial article contains twenty per cent and over 
of nitrogen. It does not, however, act quite as rapidly as the Chile 
saltpeter. A suggestion of caution in the use of nitrogenous manures 
will be given presently. 

LIME, GYPSUM AND MARL 

Lime is another substance usually abundant in California soils, 
but still often desirable as an application. This is, notably, the case 
on our heavy clays or adobes, where, as has already been mentioned 



VARIOUS FORMS OF LIME 145 

in another connection, the use of lime as a top dressing, at the rate of 
six hundred to one tliousand pounds to the acre, not only makes the 
heavy soil more friable, but acts upon and makes available the large 
amount of organic matter which such soils usually contain. Lime also 
renders inorganic materials more available for plant food, corrects 
acidity, and may destroy insects and fungi. Application of lime is 
also desirable after applications of barnyard manure have been made 
for several years ; and it is especially valuable wherever, in alluvial 
soils rich in vegetable matter, there is an excessive growth of wood 
and leaf. Usually light soils are not materially benefited by the use 
of lime. 

Ground limestone is gaining standing as a fertilizer. It acts less 
vigorously and more slowly than burnt lime or hydrate of lime in 
improving heavy soils, but it serves a good purpose in overcoming 
sourness in loams, silts or sands. It should be used in double the 
amounts prescribed for other forms of lime. 

Gypsum. — Gypsum, or land plaster (sulphate of lime), occurs 
in considerable quantities in this State and Nevada. It acts directly 
in correcting soils made alkaline by presence of carbonate of soda. 
Applied to soils not alkaline, gypsum sets free potash, magnesia, and 
ammonia, which may be present in insoluble form ; and it also causes 
potash to be transferred from the upper to the lower layers of the 
soil, so that roots can everywhere find a store of it. Hence its special 
value when applied to deep-rooting plants. The reason why gypsum 
is so capricious in its action, which was long a mystery, is now held 
to be clear, because upon soils that are tolerably rich in fixed potash 
it will do good service, while upon soils poor in potash it will not. In 
any event gypsum is to be regarded as an excitant rather than as a 
form of plant food. 

Of the several uses of gypsum, probably its chief value lies in its 
power as an absorbent. If added to manure in excess it delays fermen- 
tation, and it is, therefore, not a desirable addition to the compost heap. 
But for covering fermenting manures or scattering around moist places 
in horse and cow stables to absorb odors and fix volatile manurial 
substances it is of value. Gypsum does not correct acidity nor does it 
promote decay of organic matter as other forms of lime do. 

Marls. — Marl is a calcareous earth, and is called shell marl, rock 
marl, earthy marls, etc.. according to its origin and mechanical condi- 
tion. A number of samples from dififerent parts of the State have been 
analyzed and some of them commended for local application to soils 
needing lime, but they are usually not valuable enough to warrant 
hauling far. 

BARNYARD MANURE AND COMPOST 

Where fruit growing is carried on with stock growing, there are 
abundant supplies of manure available, but this combination is not 
characteristic of California, though prevailing to some extent, and 
likely to be more prevalent as fruit planting extends farther from the 
centers which are wholly given to it. But even in the fruit centers 



146 CALIFORNIA FRUITS! HOW TO GROW THEM 

there are certain amounts of material available from the animals that 
are kept for cultivation and hauling, or to be had, often, for the 
expense of hauling from adjacent towns. 

As already stated, coarse, unrotted manure can seldom be used to 
advantage in this State, unless it be plowed under in the fall in heavy 
soils with ample rainfall, or on lighter soils, perhaps, if well irrigated. 
So great, however, is the demand for humus-enrichment of soils that 
all available supplies of stable cleanings are readily sold in towns in 
the citrus districts to go considerable distances by rail to the orchards. 
Thus fresh manure is largely used, although either finely divided or 
well-rotted manure is superior. Corral scrapings, which are usually 
the first resource when the idea of manuring springs up in a neighbor- 
hood, are not always well decomposed, but they are finely divided, and 
therefore decompose readily as compared with coarse straw, which, 
it is said, has been found practically unchanged even after lying two 
years in a dry, loose soil. It is, therefore, of the greatest advantage to 
prepare barnyard manure with care for use in this State by some such 
method as will be described below, which includes composting, thereby 
turning to account nearly all organic material likely to be available. 
This advice is obviously for the use of the orchardist who keeps live- 
stock rather than for the large commercial grower. 

Clean up all the manure on hand just before the fall rains, putting the same 
on the land, and either cultivate it in or plow it under. What manure accumu- 
lates during the winter pile in a snug heap some five or six feet in depth, and 
throw it over some three or four times during the winter to keep it from 
burning, as well as to thoroughly mix it and thereby hasten decomposition. 
Put horse, cow, hog, chicken and every other kind of manure that can be had, all 
together. Never burn anything that will rot, but haul to the pile corn-stalks, 
roots, and all squash, melon, tomato, and potato vines, etc., as well as weeds of 
every description ; in fact, anything and everything that will decay and make 
vegetable matter. Use fresh horse manure mostly to hasten the decomposition of said 
vines, weeds, etc., alternating as the heap is made. By so doing there will not 
be a weed seed left with vitality enough to germinate. It is well to have 
manure piles under a roof to avoid leaching during the longest and most 
excessive rains, but so situated that some of the rain falling on the barn can 
be easily conducted to the piles, giving them just the amount of water necessary 
to wet thoroughly without leaching, and no more. 

Treatment of Manure Without Composting. — Even when com- 
posting all refuse vegetable matter with the manure is not thought 
worth the time and trouble, it is just as important to properly treat the 
manure when stored alone. This can be easily done by some such plan 
as is described below by an owner of a small fruit farm : 

Collect the stable manure in a large bin and keep it wet enough to prevent 
burning or "fire-hanging." With a bin, say ten or twelve feet square and five or 
six feet high, built convenient to the barn, the manure can be placed therein and 
watered from time to time with much less trouble than it can be composted with 
other material. This, of course, presupposes the ability to run the water through 
a hose or by natural flow. Care must, of course, be taken that too much water 
be not supplied, causing the substance to be leached from the pile. But in my 
own experience I find the danger is at the other extreme, and when I open my 
pile I sometimes wish I had used more water. In filling the bin leave one end 
or side open as long as possible, for convenience of filling. 

Barnyard manure and compost carefully prepared in some such 
way as described, and applied before the rains or early in the rainy 



SHEEP AND POULTRY MANURE 147 

season, to be turned under at the first plowing, will be in condition 
to be readily assimilated, and will not injure any soil. Where no 
composting is undertaken it is rational to apply the manure during 
the rainy season directly to the land if the rainfall is not large and 
the land fit to haul over. During the dry season the manure can be 
spread in the corral and tramped into dust by the stock because as long 
as it remains dry no losses by fermentation can occur. Near the end 
of the dry season, the corral should be scraped and all tiie material 
spread on the land. In this way the cost and trouble of manure piles 
can be avoided. 

Sheep Manure. — The proximity of the orange orchards of South- 
ern California to extensive sheep ranges led to large use of the manure 
from sheep corrals until supplies were practically exhausted. After- 
wards large deposits in the San Joaquin Valley were opened and the 
material which has shown value by analysis in one case of above $14 
per ton, is finally ground and placed upon the market in a business 
way. One deposit mined for several years by George C. Roeding 
& Co., of Fresno, was several acres in extent, and at some points the 
material was ten feet deep. Such deposits can seldom be found now 
excei)t in remote parts of the State. 

Sheep manure is usually counted richer and quicker, though not so 
lasting in its effects, as stable manure. Being highly nitrogenous, too 
free use of sheep manure tends to excessive growth of wood, especially 
on young trees. Old bearing trees may be benefited by such a 
stimulant. 

Poultry Manure, — Poultry keeping on fruit farms is a good 
combination providing the fowls are not confined on too small areas 
for this is apt to render the soil sour and foul and may cause trees to 
be unthrifty. Poultry manure can be used to advantage with fruit 
trees if applied sparingly, for it is a concentrated manure, as is sheep 
manure. On the average clear hen manure, free from dirt and trash, 
may, when fresh, average about 1 per cent nitrogen, 0.80 per cent 
phosphoric acid, and 0.40 per cent potash ; in other words, 20 pounds 
nitrogen per ton, 16 pounds phosphoric acid, and 8 pounds potash. 
This contains 55 per cent moisture and when thoroughly dried might 
contain about half as much, which would make the amounts of plant 
foods just double what is stated above. At the values usually given 
for these plant foods, such manure might be worth about $10 per ton. 

VARIOUS WASTE PRODUCTS 

The care advised in saving and treating barnyard manure, hen 
manure, bones, ashes, etc., should be extended to other waste products 
of the farm. Soapsuds should be allowed to run to adjacent trees 
unless used in the flower garden, but not too long upon the same trees, 
for it may kill them. Peelings and corings of fruit, cut for drying, 
should be fed to pigs, and the resulting manure secured. It is not wise 
to corral the swine in a dry run in the summer and allow the manure 
to be sluiced out by the winter rise of the stream. 



148 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Prunings. — Prunings of the orchard and vineyard should be 
burned between the rows, in small piles, so as to distribute the ashes 
well. Danger to adjacent trees may be avoided by using the portable, 
home-made tin shields on the sides of the fires. It is not wise to carry 
all the prunings to the side of the highway and burn them there and 
allow the ashes to be lost. Vineyard prunings are sometimes cut up 
with an arrangement like a straw-cutter, which reduces them to bits 
about an inch in length. They are then scattered over the surface of 
the ground, turned under at the next plowing, and soon decay. The 
use of cut prunings on the lemon orchard has already been mentioned 
in the chapter on Pruning. Where, through lightness of soil and short 
rainfall, the woody fiber does not readily decay, burning upon an iron 
sled about ten feet long are practiced. At its front is a V-shaped iron 
rod, to which a horse can be hitched. On the sled are flaring sheet-iron 
sides and perforated bottom. This is filled with brush, a fire kindled, 
and as the horse moves forward fresh brush is added, while the ashes 
by its motion are sifted out very evenly all over the vineyard. 

Refuse from Wineries. — The fermented husks, stems, and seeds, 
all containing valuable fertilizing properties, are often spread on the 
road and in holes, where it is of no account whatever. If scattered 
over the vineyard, much valuable substance would be returned to the 
soil. Professor J. L, Burd, of the University of California, estimates 
the contents and value of this somewhat variable substance as follows, 
value increasing as water percentage decreases : 

Water Potash. Phosphoric Nitrogen. Value. 

%. Acid. 

Sweet pomace 50.00 12.6 2.80 19.1 $4.59 

Fermented pomace (unpressed) . . . 70.59 7.4 3.98 9.6 2.49 

Fermented pomace (pressed) 54.92 16.6 5.0 17.6 4.60 

Mixed barnyard manure 75.00 11.4 6.0 11.4 3.15 

Grape pomace (old) 21.00 21.4 17.90 33.60 8.67 

The figures of potash, phosphoric acid and nitrogen are the num- 
bers of pounds of each in a ton of pomace, and the value is that of a 
ton. The barnyard manure is, of course, inserted for comparison. 
Grape pomace, particularly when fresh, is likely to be acid, and it is 
desirable that the acidity be neutralized with freshly slaked lime. The 
use of large quantities of fresh grape pomace without this preliminary 
treatment might act unfavorably upon soil and plants. 

Other Waste Products. — There are available from various manu- 
factories different waste products which can not be specified. When 
any such material comes to the notice of the fruit grower, he should 
seek advice from the Agricultural Experiment Station, at Berkeley, 
as to the probable value of the material, and its special uses. 

CAUTION IN USE OF . FERTILIZERS 

Besides the injunction already given against application of fertiliz- 
ers when the soil is already quite rich enough to produce good fruit 
and plenty of it, it should be noted that manures unduly rich in animal 
matter should be used with caution, as they may over-stimulate the 



METHODS OF APPLYING FERTILIZERS 149 

plant, delay or reduce fruiting^, injure the quality of the fruit, and 
possibly engender disease in the tree or vine. Monstrous size and 
puffincss of oranges is clearly due in some cases to excess nitrogenous 
manures. Excessive use of soluble fertilizers like nitrate of soda may 
kill plants or trees outright. 

The effect of excessive use of stable manures, or other manures 
very rich in nitrogen, upon the products of the vine has been frequently 
noted as destructive to bouquet and quality. 

METHODS OF APPLYING FERTILIZERS 

Suggestions concerning proper application of barnyard manures, 
both to young trees at planting and to bearing trees and vines, have 
already been given. The same conditions which cause slow decomposi- 
tion of stable manures apply to any fertilizing material which is not 
readily soluble in water. All such material should be in a finely divided 
state. Surface api^lications of ground bone will, in the dry climate of 
California, lie practically unchanged for a long period. Ground bone 
should be plowed in as deeply as can be done without injury to the 
roots of trees and vines, and then, if the surface is kept cultivated, it 
will lie in moist strata and decompose, or be seized by the searching 
rootlets. On the other hand, super-phosphate, or other really soluble 
chemical fertilizers, will produce immediate results, and can be most 
economically used on light and easily permeable soils, on which falling 
water sinks and does not flow over the surface. In leachy soils a part 
of such fertilizers might be carried down beyond the reach of shallow- 
rooting plants, but there is little danger of this in the case of trees 
and vines. 

When superphosphate is used on irrigated ground, it is sometimes 
drilled in to prevent its being carried along with the running water. 
One way is to run a chisel-tooth cultivator ahead of the drill and to 
drill in the fertilizer as deep as feasible to do without injuring the 
roots. Spring application of fertilizers are conveniently made by 
spreading upon the vegetation which is plowed under at that season. 

Manures with Irrigation Water. — Distribution of fertilizers by 
using the flow of irrigation water is described by A. S. Chapman, 
as follows: 

We shovel sheep manure into the irrigating ditches, allowing each tree to 
receive about twenty-five pounds at each separate irrigation. Our basins cover 
the entire surface of the ground. We make no effort to choke such weeds as 
clover, alfilerilla, and the like ; but the irrigator with his hoe destroys the 
obnoxious nightshade, hoarhound, and nettle. 

In the fall of the year we follow with copious liming — about three barrels of 
unslackcd lime to the acre — applied in the following manner at the head of our 
irrigating ditch : We plant a box (about three feet wide, six feet long, two 
feet deep) six inches under the surface of the running water. In it we place a 
barrel of the lime. It slacks and swells to twice its original bulk. A man stands 
on this with his hoe and sees that the water carries it off evenly. With an 
irrigating head such as we use, a man will run into the ditch four barrels a day, 
or about three barrels to the acre. We have a considerable fall, and the water 
runs very rapidly; but it takes up all the lime and the water runs white, like 
milk. 



150 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

We now leave the orange orchard till spring, when we plow under the 
weeds, manure and lime. We thus aim to supply our soil with nitrate of lime, 
potash and magnesia. Carbonic acid gas is absorbed by the water and attacks 
the inert plant food in the soil ; hard-pan is prevented both by the mechanical 
effects and the vegetable matter and the lime. 

The basin method of irrigation, to which allusion is made, will be 
more fully described in the following chapter. 



FERTILIZING MATTERS IN IRRIGATION WATER 

Water used for irrigation may carry in solution injurious sub- 
stances, as, for example, alkali, as will be noted in the following 
chapter ; or it may carry very valuable fertilizing properties. These 
facts can only be determined by analysis. Professor Hilgard has 
found that the water of one creek in Alameda county carries to the 
land it irrigates about half a grain of potash in each gallon, which 
means that if twelve inches of such water were used on the ground 
during the season, each acre would receive therefrom about twenty 
pounds of fully available potash. At Riverside a crop of oranges 
requires about forty-two pounds of potash per acre, of which the 
amount the irrigation water used in that case contained thirty-five 
pounds, beside other matters required by plants. These things have 
a definite cash value in the market ; and this value the irrigator gets 
as a free gift in addition to the water. Even in the case of the Nile, the 
sediment is only part of the sum of fertility conveyed by the river. 

GREEN MANURING OR COVER CROPS 

Green manuring consists in plowing under a growth of weeds or a 
sown crop to secure by its decay a contribution of humus to the soil. 
Plants grown for this purpose are currently called "cover crops" 
because they cover the soil instead of allowing it to remain bare in 
"clean culture" of orchard or "bare fallow" of grain fields. 

All plants by their decay in the soil add organic matter to it, and 
this matter is of nitrogenous character, but leguminous plants do this 
and a great deal more, through their exclusive ability to use atmos- 
pheric nitrogen gathered by the bacteria which cause nodules upon 
their roots. There is also special value in deep-rooting legume in soil 
amelioration. As has already been stated, where moisture is ample 
for both alfalfa and trees this plant is being used for a permanent 
cover of orchard ground as a substitute for clean culture. This is 
being successfully done to some extent with almonds and walnuts, as 
with other fruits also. In the San Jose districts apricot trees have 
been grown for several years in irrigated alfalfa, with a gain in the 
product of the trees. Alfalfa can be used for a certain time even when 
its permanent stand is not desirable, for it is not difficult to destroy 
alfalfa with a well-sharpened plow, although the roots may have 
attained considerable thickness. Of course this practice depends upon 
moisture supply ; where that is not abundant, clean culture for moisture 
conservation is unavoidable. But where moisture in excess of the 



COVER-CROPS OF GREEN MANURES 151 

needs of the trees is available it will be used in future indirectly for 
their benefit in ways we are only just beginning to discern, and one of 
these is likely to be the summer growth of legumes in the orchard. 
Cow peas on moist or irrigated lands may be used in this way. 

A summer cover crop in California, however, except where irriga- 
tion water is cheap, may never be practicable. The wider problem 
is to secure the best leguminous plant which will make a heavy growth 
during the winter months, so that it can be plowed in early in spring 
and the ground put in shape for the thorough surface pulverization 
to prevent evaporation of moisture during our long, dry summer. 
For this reason we can not use many plants which are used for green- 
manuring in humid climates. Crimson clover, cow peas, etc., do not 
make good winter growth unless the temperature is relatively high 
and frosts few and light. They make exuberant growth for a time in 
the spring when heat is adequate and moisture abundant, but at that 
time it is too late to grow crops for plowing under because the soil is 
too dry for their decay and their presence tends otherwise to the loss 
of moisture and makes it very difficult to secure a good surface tilth. 
The greatest care must be had not to allow a growth either of cover 
crop or of weeds to stand too long or its covering will do more harm 
than good. Hardy legumes are therefore the desideratum both for 
winter forage and green-manuring. The common "burr clover" 
(Medicago denticiilata) is proving very satisfactory in some parts of 
the State, the "Canadian field pea," the winter vetch, the hairy vetch 
and fenugreek are coming into quite wide use in orchards in different 
parts of the State. Which plant is best in any locality must be deter- 
mined by its local behavior. In some places native lupines make a 
good natural cover crop. If local conditions do not favor growth of 
legumes, a good winter cover of rye or other hardy grain may be 
grown. It will serve the same purposes, though, perhaps, to a less 
degree. 

A Matter of Local Study. — The recourse to cover crops in the 
orchard or vineyard should be approached with a disposition to careful 
study and experiment. Unless it is done in the right way it is likely 
to be disappointing and the right way involves both the selection of 
the best legumes and the best ways to grow them. Scant growth, 
cloddy soil, loss of moisture and condemnation of the practice are likely 
to result from ill-considered methods. On the other hand, success 
with cover crops results in such numerous and important advantages 
that the wide introduction of them must be looked upon as one of the 
most important advances in California horticulture during the last 
decade. 

Nothing more emphatic can be stated in support of green manuring 
under the proper conditions than a description of the role played by 
organic matter in soils. Professor C. B. Lipman, of the University of 
California, prepares such a description as follows: 

1. By its binding action on the soil particles and by its sponge-like 
absorptive power, organic matter makes sandy soils more retentive of 
moisture. 



152 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

2. By its light, yet bulky mass, it prevents the extremely fine par- 
ticles of clay soils from running together and becoming cemented, and 
improves the essential feature of aeration in heavy soils. 

3. Organic matter contains most of the nitrogen found in soils 
and all plants except the legumes are absolutely dependent on it for 
their supply of that essential element. 

The greater ease of tillage of soils enriched with organic matter is 
a matter of universal experience. Besides such a contribution, cover 
crops may be claimed to confer such specific benefits as these : 

4. Organic matter is the source of energy and the laboratory in 
which the important beneficial soil bacteria manufacture available plant 
food and bring about other changes of importance to plants. 

5. Through its decomposition by soil micro-organisms, organic 
matter acts as a source of carbonic acid and other weak acids which 
help to dissolve and make available the mineral matter necessary to 
the growth of plants. 

While growing they probably assist in preventing the radiation of 
heat from the ground in time of a freeze. They do away with the 
cultivation of the ground during the winter months. 

Each of these reasons suggests a chapter of discussion and explana- 
tion which can not be indulged in. Every reader should keep himself 
up to date in this progressive subject by thoughtful reading of our 
horticultural journals, proceedings of our horticultural assemblies, 
and the publications of the University of California Experiment Station. 



CHAPTER XV 
IRRIGATION OF FRUIT TREES AND VINES 

Whether fruit shall be grown with irrigation or not is a local and 
specific question, and it must be answered with due regard for several 
conditions, among which are : First, the minimum local rainfall ; 
second, the depth and character of the soil and subsoil; third, the 
situation and environment of the ground on which the fruit is to be 
grown ; fourth, the kind of fruit which it is desired to produce. 

These conditions are all correlated, and a knowledge of them all is 
necessary to an intelligent decision as to correct practice in any given 
locality. For example, the amount of rainfall which is adequate in one 
locality, or in one situation, even, may be quite insufficient in another, 
because, first, one soil may be deep and fairly retentive, into which 
roots can penetrate and find abundant moisture; second, another soil 
may have sufficient depth, but be so porous as to lose its moisture by 
evaporation, or so leachy as to lose it by drainage ; third, still another 
may be shallow, and quickly dried out under a fervid sun, or quickly 
drained by reason of a sloping substratum of rock or hardpan, while 
another similar soil, differently situated, may receive abundant moisture 
from the drainage of the slope above it ; fourth, possibly in all the soils 
cited there might be adequate moisture for deciduous fruits, but citrus 
fruits would require irrigation ; or enough for young, but not for 
bearing trees. 

Thus it appears that even to decide whether a location has sufficient 
rainfall for the growth of fruit without irrigation, one must pass 
judgment upon all the conditions first mentioned. It is hardly worth 
while, then, to discuss such a topic upon theoretical grounds, or to 
attempt to answer the general question. Shall irrigation be employed 
in the growth of fruit? The true guide is enlightened local experience, 
and the true test is the growth of the tree and the excellence of its 
fruit. So long as the grower is able to secure every year a generous 
amount of good-sized and excellent fruit by natural rainfall, he need 
concern himself very little about irrigation ; if his tree shows distress, 
and his fruit, even when properly thinned out, is not up to market 
standards every year, he may do well to provide himself with irriga- 
tion facilities, either for constant use or to supplement rainfall when 
it is occasionally deficient. 

Of course it is not commended that the grower wait until the tree 
shows signs of distress before applying water. This is a very bad plan 
of proceeding, but the visible language of the tree is mentioned as indi- 
cating that the tree needs help, either at regular intervals or occasion- 
ally, and after such a warning the grower should be able to tell by 
examination of the soil and by study of the local rainfall record when 
this need will occur, and apply his water in advance of the need. 

Recent experience has enabled fruit growers in all parts of Cali- 
fornia to arrive at a truer conception of the relation of irrigation to the 
153 



154 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

growth of fruits. Many who long scouted the suggestion that irriga- 
tion was necessary for deciduous fruit trees in their districts, have 
found that water, in addition to the rainfall, was very profitable, either 
to enable large, bearing trees to produce larger fruit, or to maintain in 
full vigor their later summer growth and to make strong fruit buds, 
which insure the following year's production. It has also been widely 
demonstrated that a tree which is adequately supplied with water, no 
matter whether it be directly from the clouds or through the irrigating 
stream, yields fruit of better size, aroma, flavor and carrying quality 
than a tree which, from any cause, falls even a little short of an ade- 
quate supply. It is clear then that neither irrigation nor non-irrigation 
are in themselves principles, but are merely methods to be employed 
when conditions demand the one or the other. 

Several claims against irrigated products may be stated and opposed 
in this way : 

(1) The claim that nursery trees grown by irrigation are, from 
that mere fact, inferior is based upon experience in transplanting trees 
unduly forced by over-irrigation. Immense growth from the bud in a 
single season of an inch and a half in diameter and ten feet in height 
tempted buyers who wanted to get as much as possible for their money. 
The result of setting out such trees created a strong prejudice against 
irrigated nursery stock. It is now clearly seen that moderate, thrifty 
growth is the ideal in a young tree, and if the soil does not hold rainfall 
enough to secure this, water enough to secure it must be applied. 

(2) The claim that irrigated fruit lacks aroma and flavor is based 
upon observation of monstrous, insipid fruit forced into such abnormal 
character by excessive irrigation. Growers who concluded therefrom 
that irrigated fruit was necessarily inferior, denied water to their trees 
and gathered small, tough, unmarketable fruit, because there was not 
enough rainfall to enable the trees to perform their proper function. 
As it is now conceded that the highest quality, including the delicate 
aromas and flavors, can be secured only by adequate moisture, it matters 
not how long since it fell from the clouds nor by what route it reaches 
the roots of the trees. 

(3) The claim that irrigated fruit could not endure shipment was 
based upon the bruising and collapse of fruit which was unduly inflated 
by over-irrigation. The best fruit for shipping is the perfect fruit and 
that is secured as just stated. The fact that the greater part of the 
fresh fruit shipped across the continent from California has been more 
or less irrigated, according to the needs of different localities, has 
settled the point beyond further controversy. 

(4) The claim that canners objected to irrigated fruit was based 
upon the early experience with over-irrigated fruit, which lacked 
quality and consistency. At present the canners encourage irrigation 
and all other arts of growing which bring the product up to the 
standards they insist upon. 

(5) The claim that irrigated fruit is inferior for drying has the 
same foundation as the preceding claims and is just as clearly based 
upon misapprehension. Watery fruit is obviously inferior for drying 
but such fruit is the fault of the irrigator, not of irrigation. One of 



QUANTITY OF WATER REQUIRED 155 

the plainest deductions from experience is that small, tough fruit makes 
unprofitable dried fruit, and that the best development of the fruit is 
essential to the best results from drying. Many comparative weighings 
have shown that the greatest yield in dried form has been secured 
from trees which have liad water enough to produce good, large fruit. 
Even to bear fr^iit for drying, then, the tree must have moisture enough 
to develop size and quality. If lacking moisture, the tree serves its own 
purpose in developing pit and skin and reduces the pulp, in which lie 
the desirability and value of dried fruits. 

Of course the water should be applied at proper times, in proper 
amount, and in a proper way. 

HOW MUCH WATER SHOULD BE USED? 

This is by its very nature an elusive question and any attempt to 
answer it by a definite prescription is more apt to produce folly than 
wisdom. For as it appears that whether irrigation is at all needed or 
not depends upon several conditions which must be ascertained in 
each place, so the amount of water, which is really an expression of the 
degree of that need, depends also upon local conditions of rainfall, of 
soil depth and retentiveness, of rate of waste by evaporation, of the 
particular thirst of each irrigated crop, etc. The result secured by the 
use of water is really the ultimate measure of the duty of water in each 
instance. In the case of fruit trees and vines, then, whatever amount 
of water secures thrifty and adequate wood growth and strong, good- 
colored foliage, but not excessive or rank growth ; and abundance of 
good-sized and rich, but not monstrous and watery fruit, is the proper 
amount for that place and that product, — and to the ascertainment of 
that amount by local experience of himself and others, the grower 
should employ his most earnest thought and his keenest insight. 

During recent years the writer has continually renewed his data 
of the irrigation practice of California fruit growers by systematic 
inquiry and has prepared four bulletins* which have been published 
by the Irrigation Investigations of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

A study of local practice shows that infinite variety exists and in 
the nature of the case must exist, and that any definite prescription 
of the duty of water under various conditions is impossible. In some 
cases the amount of water at each irrigation must be small, and appli- 
cations frequent because the soils are shallow, overlying bedrock, and 
a small amount saturates them. In other places an acre-foot of water 
is readily absorbed and retained in the deep soil. The annual rainfall 
also has little relation to the amount of irrigation, because neither fine 
shallow, nor deep coarse soils, can retain the volume of water which 
falls upon them during the rainy season. Then the varying rate of 
evaporation, the character of the tilth, etc., enter as factors and it 
becomes clear that he is fortunate who knows how much water to use 
on his own place. 

•Farmers' Rulletin No. 116, "Irrigation in Fruit Growing;" Farmers' Hullctin No. 138, 
"Irrigation in Garden and Field;" Bulletin of Exr)crimcni Stations No. 108, "Irrigation Prac- 
tice Among Fruit Growers of Tlie Pacific Coast;" annual report of irrigation and drainage 
investigations, 1904, "Relation of Irrigation to Yield, Size, Quality, and CommcrciaJ Suitability 
of Fruits." 



156 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

It is interesting to note that results of close inquiry by the Irrigation 
Investigations of the U. S. Department of Agriculture to ascertain the 
amounts of water used by measurement of - water running in main 
ditches and by estimate of the acreage to which the water is applied, 
do not agree closely with the growers' estimates of the amounts of 
water which they actually use. There are, of course, always issues 
between water-purveyors and water-buyers which can not be entered 
upon in this connection. A rough conclusion from data secured from 
the ditch flow, etc., is that from 12 to 30 acre-inches of water are used 
annually in irrigated orchards and vineyards, according to local condi- 
tions involved. It is quite clear that the amounts chiefly used would 
not be the average but would tend toward the lower figure. The 
details of these inquiries are found in the publications on irrigation of 
the Office of Experiment Station, U. S. Department of Agriculture.* 



RELATION OF RAINFALL TO IRRIGATION 

The amount of rain and the time it falls are clearly the most 
important factors in determining the necessity for irrigation. Absence 
of rainfall makes a desert of the richest soils at all elevations and at 
all exposures. Its only remedy is irrigation. But there are degrees of 
poverty in rainfall, and thorough tillage will often lessen the ill effects 
of a scanty supply, so that an oasis may be made to appear without 
water beyond that supplied from the clouds. This is the triumph 
of tillage in the arid region which is to be considered in another 
connection. 

The line between adequate and insufficient rainfall can not be 
closely drawn. In the growth of common orchard fruits, irrigation is 
not resorted to at a number of points where the local rainfall sometimes 
is as low as 15 or 16 inches, but with less than that amount, unless 
the soil receive additional moisture by underflow, it is essential. On 
the other hand, irrigation is regularly practiced in some localities where 
the rainfall sometimes rises to 45 inches. Under average conditions 
of soil depth and retentiveness, the amount of rainfall which may be 
considered adequate for deciduous orchard trees under good cultivation 
is about 20 inches. So definitely is this amount fixed in the minds of 
some California growers as meeting the needs of the tree for satisfac- 
tory growth and fruitage that, when rainfall for a season is less than 
that amount, irrigation is at once resorted to to supply the shortage. 

But owing to local conditions of soil and climate, the rainfall, no 
matter how large, may not be relied upon to carry the trees through 
the dry season. The fact is that the soil is not capable either of re- 
ceiving the heavy rainfall or of long retaining such portions as actually 
enter it. There is, then, a considerable part of the rainfall which is 
worse than worthless, because it does injury by soil washing and soil 
leaching, and places where extremely heavy rainfall occurs may be 
actually worse off than other places with less rainfall. Some localities 
of large rainfall lead in amounts of water supplied by irrigation. The 

*Definite citation is not made because these publications are continually appearing with 
additional data on the effective use of water. The whole series should be examined. 



WATER-REQUIREMENTS OF DIFFERENT TREES 157 

converse is also true, for some localities of light rainfall report success 
with deciduous fruit trees with a minimum amount of irrigation water. 

Deciduous Fruits. — Without making too much of individual 
reports there appear instances enough to warrant the conckision that 
the deciduous fruit tree can winter successfully with a small moisture 
supply and is, in fact, in less danger from lack of moisture than from 
over-supply at this time of the year. If there be enough moisture to 
prevent injury from evaporation, the tree will start good growth as the 
season advances and continue it if irrigation is given promptly and in 
sufficient quantity. There must always be a determination of what is 
an adequate supply by reference to local conditions, but as an estimate 
of necessary rainfall has been made at 20 inches, it is evident that ade- 
quate irrigation may be very much less than that. The rainfall of 20 
inches is distributed through six or seven months. Some of it consists 
of light rains, with long, dry intervals, where there is slight penetration 
and quick evaporation. Some of it is lost by run off and by drainage. 
It is not surprising, then, that some growers having deep valley loams 
to render their irrigation effective, report success with deciduous trees 
with 8 or 10 inches of water applied just at the time of the tree's 
greatest needs and used, no doubt, with maximum efficiency. It seems 
to be a warranted deduction, from all data known to the writer, that 
10 inches of water, applied at the right time to soils of good depth and 
fair retentiveness, and accompanied by good tillage for conservation, is 
an adequate supply for five months of growth and fruiting even when 
the rainfall is only about enough to prevent drying out during the 
winter season. Some growers report use of less than this. Certainly 
less will do for young trees under favorable conditions, and some of 
the least amounts are reported from the newly planted regions. As 
the trees advance in age and bearing, larger amounts will be required. 
Instances of greatest frequency of application may be taken as indicat- 
ing soils lacking retentiveness. either through shallowness or coarse- 
ness, or either of these accompanied by extreme summer heat and 
aridity. 

Citrus Fruits. — .Xs these trees are evergreens, and as their habit 
is to make their chief fruit growth in the autumn after the work of the 
deciduous tree has been finished for the season, the irrigation season 
for them is much longer. As they are. in fact, almost always active 
and sustaining uninterrupted evaporation from their leaf surfaces, 
they must always be provided with moisture or ill will result to tree 
or fruit. They thus require more water than do deciduous trees. 
There is the same relation between irrigation and rainfall with 
citrus, as with deciduous fruit trees, but the degree of relation is 
diflferent. Many trials have shown that it is practically impossible 
to grow satisfactory citrus fruits without irrigation, unless there be 
underflow, and this is attended by the usual difficulties of high 
ground water and undesirable. There is no combination of heavy 
rainfall, or winter irrigation, and soil retentiveness which will sup- 
ply the summer and autumn thirst of the orange or lemon in Cali- 
fornia. Irrigation, too.' must be maintained both summer and win- 
ter wherever the rainfall is not well distributed and adequate. In 



158 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

the chief citrus regions of the State rainfall is seldom adequate ex- 
cept during January and February, and not always then. Under 
such conditions an estimate of the average requirements of citrus 
fruit trees in bearing would be about 20 inches of irrigation, irre- 
spective of rainfall, although there are localities of larger rainfall 
and more retentive soils where crops of these fruits can be made 
with 10 inches used at just the right time. 

RELATION OF SOIL TO IRRIGATION 

As already stated, the desirability of irrigation is unquestion- 
ably, in many cases, conditioned upon soil depth and character. 
This relation has received careful attention from soil physicists, 
and an understanding of it involves problems of plant growth and 
the movement of water in soils, the leading facts of which are avail- 
able in popular form.* 

Analysis of such phenomena can not be undertaken in this con- 
nection but a few striking contrasts in existing practice are very 
suggestive. 

On the famous river-bank fruit land of the Sacramento Valley, 
with loams of great depth and good retentiveness, and with an aver- 
age rainfall of approximately 20 inches, irrigation is resorted to only 
in years of minimum rainfall, when the precipitation is perhaps only 
about half the average. At nearly the same level, as already cited, 
where the soil is shallow and overlies hardpan, irregular irrigation 
is required. But still more marked contrast is found in the foothills 
within sight of these valley fruit lands, where with twice the aver- 
age rainfall irrigation must begin early in the summer and continue 
until autumn is well advanced, because, first, the slope is so rapid 
that much rainfall is lost by run off; second, the soil is too shallow 
above bed rock to hold much water. Even here, however, there 
comes in a local variation of measurable effect. When the soil lies 
upon vertical plates of bed rock much water is retained between 
them, and is capable of being reached by tree roots, while soil lying 
upon flat plates of rock has no such subterranean reservoir. In the 
foothill region there also occurs exceptional exposure from slopes 
facing the midsummer sun in an atmosphere whose dryness is but 
slightly ameliorated by the influence of air currents from the coast. 

In the valley and foothill contrast, just cited, the unirrigated 
valley looks up to the irrigated foothills. There are also places 
where unirrigated hillslopes look down upon irrigated valleys. The 
uplands of San Diego County are nearer the coast than those above 
the Sacramento Valley. They, too, have a rainfall usually ample 
for deciduous fruits suited to their elevation. Their rolling plateaus 
of deep soil, free from excessive heat and evaporation which occur 
on the highlands farther inland and 500 miles farther north, produce 
very successfully without irrigation. In this region, however, the 

*Relations of soils to climate, U. S. Dept. Agr., Weather Bureau Bui. 3. Water as a 
factor in the erowth of plants, Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agr., 1894, p. 165. Some interesting 
soil problems. Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1897, p. 429. The movement and retention of water 
in soils. Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1898, p. 399. The mechanics of soil moisture, U. S. Dept. 
Agr., Division of Soils, Bui. 10. 



CULTIVATION AND IRRIGATION 159 

rainfall in the valleys below is often less than the needs of even the 
decidnous fruit trees, and waters flowing from mountain snows 
through a region of unirrigated uplands must be used to irrigate 
them. 

Still another striking contrast, and one involving another and 
wholly different factor, is found in the San Joaquin Valley. Near 
Visalia 2 feet above river bottom and 4 feet above the surrounding 
plains, there is a large area of deep alluvial soil with much decayed 
vegetable matter. The land is moistened by underflow from the 
river, and. though the rainfall is but 7j^ inches, deciduous fruits are 
grown without irrigation. In the same county, and only 18 miles 
distant, there are areas of rich loam mixed with granitic sand 16 to 
18 feet deep. In this locality, though the rainfall is 11^ inches, irri- 
gation is practiced freely, as the loss of moisture in summer is very 
great. 

RELATION OF TILLAGE TO IRRIGATION 

Tillage, particularly during the dry season of the year, under 
some conditions, directly determines the need of irrigation, and is 
to a certain extent, as the popular phrase goes, a substitute for irri- 
gation. Under all conditions surface tillage by promoting con- 
servation of soil moisture, is determinative of the actual duty of 
water, whether it be from rainfall or irrigation. The effect of fre- 
quent surface tillage has been accurately determined by investiga- 
tion and experiment, both in humid and arid regions. These experi- 
ments fully support the view taught by the experience of about half 
a century in California, in accordance with which thorough tillage 
has been so widely practiced in the arid sections as an essential to 
successful fruit growing. 

As already maintained in Chapter XIII, the relations of tillage to 
soil moisture include both reception and conservation. For the re- 
ception of moisture, deep work with the plow, and sometimes with 
the subsoiler also, is almost indispensable. To retain this moisture 
and to prevent, as far as possible, its escape into the thirsty air of 
the arid region by surface evaporation, less depth and more thor- 
ough surface pulverization are required. Recent practice has been tend- 
ing toward deeper summer cultivation, so that, as previously claimed, 5 
or 6 inches of loose, finely divided soil is now obtained where formerly 
half that depth was considered adequate. It has also been shown 
that frequent stirring of this fine surface layer checks evaporation, 
even when no water is applied to compact the surface or where no 
weeds grow to draw upon the soil moisture. In a word, the aim 
of tillage in the arid region, so far as it relates to moisture supply 
in the soil consists in opening the soil to rain, or to irrigation, and 
in subsequently closing it to evaporation. These are the principles 
which were recognized and applied in California half a century ago 
and arc now enjoying somewhat sensational renaissance in the "dry 
farming" agitation in the interior of the United States. 

A Negative Declaration. — It is interesting that current practice 
afTords full demonstration of the foregoing claims both positively 



160 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

and negatively. The negative argument in favor of moisture con- 
servation by clean summer cultivation is found in the fact that 
growers in regions of heaviest rainfall approve the growth of cover 
crops, like clover, after the trees reach bearing age, and also that 
others employ scant summer cultivation, or cultivation for a short 
period only. The idea of these growers is that such practices relieve 
the soil of excessive moisture, either by the growth of the cover 
crop or by facilitating surface evaporation, and so prevent the tree 
from being stimulated to too large wood growth, or maintaining 
growth so late in the season as to enter the frost period in too active 
a condition and with new wood not properly matured. Quite in 
contrast with this is the practice, which is gaining ground in the 
hottest parts of the irrigated region, of growing alfalfa as a cover 
crop for the purpose of shading the soil and thus reducing soil tem- 
perature and, perhaps, of avoiding the ill effects of the reflection of 
burning sun heat from a smooth surface of light-colored soil, or the ill 
effect of "burning out of humus" by clean summer culture. In such 
cases more irrigation is needed to supply enough water for the growth 
of both trees and cover crop. But at present these exceptions are of 
rare occurrence. 

Cultivation Not Determined by Irrigation. — The adoption of a 
policy of clean cultivation in the dry season is not conditioned upon the 
amount of moisture available either by rainfall or irrigation. It is 
pursued both where irrigation is practiced and where it is not, and also 
where the rainfall is greatest and where it is least. It prevails in the 
humid region where rainfall may rise to 60 inches or more, and in the 
arid region where it may not exceed one-tenth as much. As a matter 
of fact, there does not appear to be a good fruit soil so deep and re- 
tentive that it can retain enough even of a very heavy rainfall to effect 
good tree growth and fruit bearing if it is forced to sustain the loss by 
evaporation from a compact surface during the long dry season follow- 
ing. There may be, it is true, soils weak in capillary, in which water 
can not rise from a great depth and in which deep-rooting plants may 
find ample water in the subsoil, providing it is held there by impervious 
underlying strata. There are many more instances where loss by 
natural drainage is added to loss by evaporation. But, disregarding 
exceptions, the loss of moisture by both drainage and evaporation dur- 
ing the dry season is so great that the soil to a depth of several feet 
loses practically all the water which is available for plant growth, and 
the trees fail or become unprofitable. Loss by drainage can not, prac- 
tically, be prevented, but loss by evaporation can be so reduced that trees 
and vines will be adequately supplied in spite of the loss by drainage. 
Because, therefore, the soil can not retain enough water in its natural 
state, no matter how much it may receive, clean summer cultivation, 
involving quite complete and more or less frequent stirring to the sur- 
face to the depth of 5 or 6 inches, as discussed in Chapter XIII, is the 
almost universal practice, irrespective of local rainfall or of irrigation. 

Cultivation, However, Determines Success of Irrigation. — The 

prevailing motive for cultivation in the dry-summer region is moisture 
retention. In this respect good surface tilth is so effective that, though 



WHEN TO USE IRRIGATION 161 

enough moisture can not be retained without it, so much can be retained 
with it that, even where irrigation or rainfall is moderate in amount, 
it may serve all purposes of the tree or vine. Thus cultivation enters 
into the fruit-growers' practice in the region under consideration, not 
to make large rainfall effective as it does in some parts of the region, 
but to make moderate rainfall eflfective, or to make small irrigation 
effective, by increasing the duty of water which is applied. It becomes 
not only a ruling consideration in the effectiveness of a certain amount 
of rainfall, as has already been suggested in another connection, but it 
also determines the success of irrigation and the amount of water re- 
quired ; for, although it was an early and crude practice to rely upon 
irrigation to support uncultivated fruit trees and to irrigate more and 
more frequently as the ground became harder from its use, this policy 
has now no standing in commercial fruit growing. Not only was it 
wasteful of water, but it was otherwise detrimental to the thrift of trees. 
Cultivation and Irrigation Work for Soil Improvement — Thor- 
ough cultivation, both in winter and sunmier, has other very important 
ends in view. It opens the soil and promotes aeration ; it encourages 
deeper rooting and thus encourages the tree to take possession of a 
greater soil mass both for moisture and other plant food. It is part of 
the very valuable policy of increasing humus by plowing under the 
natural growth of weeds or specially sown legumes, which is discussed 
in Chapter XIV. This affords opportunity to use water, beyond the 
amount the trees require, for soil improvement. 

WHEN TO IRRIGATE 

When to irrigate is governed by local conditions and the needs of 
different fruits, and can not be stated in general rules. There are, how- 
ever, some principles involved which may be hinted at. 

Winter Irrigation. — On lands with sufficient depth of fairly re- 
tentive soil, the grower may artificially supplement a scanty rainfall by 
thoroughly soaking the land by winter irrigation and then by careful 
summer cultivation he will be able to conserve enough water in the soil 
to carry deciduous fruit trees or vines through bearing and autumn bud 
formation without further water supply. But there are other situa- 
tions in which no amount of winter irrigation nor rainfall will suffice 
for these ends. There are foothill orchard areas in which the winter 
rainfall is two or three times as great as in the valley situations where 
fruit is successfully grown without irrigation, and yet water must be 
applied in summer on those foothills or the fruit would be unmarket- 
able and the trees in distress. The forty or more inches of rainfall 
falling on a shallow soil underlaid by sloping bedrock in some cases 
nearly sluices the cultivated soil from its foothold, and yet the over- 
saturation in winter avails nothing for summer growth, because most 
diligent cultivation can not retain moisture enough in shallow soil thus 
situated to sustain bearing trees in good crops of full-sized fruit. The 
same is true of valley soils underlaid by hardpan. In such cases winter 
irrigation could add nothing but distress to the soil over-soaked by rain- 
fall, and summer irrigation, well-timed and adequate, is the secret of 



162 CALIFORNIA PRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

success in the orchard. The same conclusion, although for very differ- 
ent reasons, must hold for soils underlaid by gravel or sand, and thus 
too rapidly dried by leaching. 

But even this generalization must be accepted only for situations 
endowed with conditions which justify it. There may be sloping hills 
with shallow soil where winter rainfall does not amount to saturation. 
Then winter irrigation to supply such irrigation is desirable, and then, 
too, summer irrigation in proper amount and at proper intervals, will 
also be demanded. Among the foothills, also, there may be localities 
with depth of retentive soil in which water enough can be applied in 
winter to carry trees through the year. Thus we come again to the 
only safe generalization which can be made, and that is, that every- 
where water must be adequate to the demands of the tree at the time it 
is needed, and whether it can best be applied in summer or winter, or 
both, or whether it is not necessary to make any artificial application 
at all, depends upon existing conditions which the grower must ascer- 
tain, and to which his policy and practice must conform. It is a fact, 
however, that all soils, which under good cultivation are fairly reten- 
tive, winter irrigation, when water is most abundant, and usually car- 
ries most sediment, can be made to go far toward making summer 
irrigation unnecessary for all deciduous fruits. 

As to winter irrigation, practice varies, some relying upon a single 
heavy flooding by using checks on contour lines, by which, perhaps, a 
foot in depth or more of water is allowed to soak into the soil ; others 
use the same method of application in winter as in summer, and, there- 
fore, give a number of irrigations in winter. There is, of course, much 
less danger of injury by water to deciduous growths in winter, because 
they are dormant, though an eye should be kept on drainage for exces- 
sive irrigation as for excessive rainfall. The grape and the pear are 
known to endure long submergence, but some other fruits are sensitive 
about it. 

Summer Irrigation. — When this shall begin and when end are 
to be locally determined. In some places even the earliest fruits can 
not reach satisfactory size and quality without irrigation. In others 
rainfall with winter irrigation will suffice for proper development of 
early fruits, but not for late. In both cases the fruit may be satis- 
factory, but the tree unable to hold its leaf vigor until the work of the 
growing season is properly completed. It is then apparent that local 
practice must vary in order to reach the universal fact, and that is that 
all through the active season the tree must have constant and adequate 
moisture supply. Many evils in lack of bearing, in dying back, in un- 
seasonable activity and the like are due to inadequate, intermittent and, 
in some cases, to excessive moisture in the soil. 

Cultivation and Irrigation. — Although the relations of irrigation 
and cultivation have been freely discussed, it must be remarked in this 
connection that with such an extension of irrigation practice as is now 
realized, there is danger that those who have previously trusted so 
fully upon good cultivation may swing to the other extreme and trust 
too much to the stream of water and too little to the plow and culti- 
vator. There is a temptation this way when one finds that he can run 



HOW TO APPLY WATER 163 

water in large amounts very cheaply. Not only is there clanger of over- 
irrigation in the growth of tree and fruit, but the ill effects of water 
ui)on the soil, when unattended by good cultivation, are constantly 
threatened. The tree needs air as well as water ; it needs a certain free 
condition of the soil for its best root action. These needs can be amply 
secured when adequate ap])lication of water is quickly followed by 
soil-stirring. Irrigated soil rightly treated is delightfully mellow and 
free and of condition to invite the fullest activity on the part of the tree. 
Irrigated ground not properly treated becomes compacted, fissured, 
cloddy and generally hateful, losing moisture rapidly, setting around 
the roots like cement and tearing them by its subsequent shrinkage. 
These conditions do not occur on the lighter soils, and yet even these 
are best when cultivated in a rational manner. 



METHODS OF IRRIGATION 

There are various methods employed in California for the convey- 
ance and application of water to trees and vines. Some of the principal 
ones will be described. 

As this writing does not pretend to be a treatise on irrigation engi- 
neering, no attempt will be made to describe the more ambitious under- 
takings, which should never be entered upon without the engagement 
of a qualified engineer. Nor is it possible to discuss the numerous 
devices which are covered by patents. Investment should always be 
preceded by visits to irrigation works now in operation, and procedure 
should be guided by observation. The hints presented herewith relate 
chiefly to things the irrigator can do for himself. 

Free Flooding. — Flooding — that is, the free flow of water over 
the whole surface, or the flow between rows with furrows near the 
trees to retain the water in the interspaces — is only employed on some 
flat lands where winter irrigation is used to supplement rainfall when 
the latter is occasionally below normal. In such cases water is available 
in large quantities, and the lay of the land favors quite even distribu- 
tion. Even under these conditions the experience of growers soon 
leads to the adoption of deep furrows or lateral ditches, or some simple 
check system, as superior to flooding. Summer flooding is done only 
by those who are unacquainted with better methods or who count their 
trees of too little account to warrant extra effort. It seems, therefore, 
a fair conclusion that flooding is only resorted to as a temporary expe- 
dient, and has little standing. 

The Check System. — With soils of such character that vertical 
percolation is very rapid, flooding in checks, by which water is held 
upon a particular area until it sinks below the surface, is considered 
necessary. There is a tendency to change from this method to a furrow 
system wherever practicable, because the former requires more soil 
shifting, a larger head of water for economical operation, more labor 
to handle it, more working in water and mud, and more difficult culti- 
vation to relevel the land and to reduce a puddled surface to satisfactory 
tilth. For these and other reasons, perhaps, on loams of medium fine- 



164 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

ness one may find two adjacent growers pursuing different methods, 
while on coarse porous loams the check system prevails, and on fine, 
retentive loams, the furrow system is without rival. 

The check system can be seen on the most extensive scale in the 
upper part of the San Joaquin Valley, where the land is so level and 
water so abundant that the checks can be measured by acres or frac- 
tions of acres. In its most perfect form it is found in Orange County 
and some parts of Los Angeles County, where the checks are measured 
by feet, rarely by rods. Very large checks are chiefly used for field 
crops, although also employed for winter irrigation or vineyards and 
orchards of deciduous fruits. With fruits, however, even in the same 
district, the tendency is toward using smaller checks carefully leveled 
before planting. With the large-check system permanent levees, either 
in rectangular form or on the contour plan, are generally used. The 
small-check system is chiefly laid off with temporary levees, quickly 
made with special appliances and as quickly worked back to a level as 
soon as the ground dries sufiiciently after irrigation, and the whole 
surface kept well cultivated until the time arrives for a restoration of 
the levees for the next irrigation. The latter is the leading horticul- 
tural mode. It is carefully described by Mr. Sydmer Ross, of Fuller- 
ton, Orange County, California, as follows : 

The check system, as carried out in the best-handled orchards, entails much 
hard work, but after you are through with an irrigation you know that each 
and every tree has had its full supply of water or you know the reason why. 
The ground must be cultivated, say, about 5 inches deep, so as to have plenty of 
loose soil with which to throw up a high ridge. Then a four or six-horse 
"ridger" should be run once each way through the rows, if it is a citrus or 
deciduous orchard, or twice should the trees be walnuts, because these trees are 
grown about 40 feet apart. After this is done the ridger should be run entirely 
around the outside of the piece to be irrigated, so as to have as perfect a ridge 
as possible on the outside. One man will ridge about 15 acres in a day. The 
ridger should be built with a steel plate extending along the bottom on both 
sides, bolted to the inside and projecting about 2 inches, so as to take good hold 
of the ground. Then with one horse attached to what is locally known as a 
"jump scraper," one side of the checks should be closed up, for the ridger in 
making the cross ridges breaks down the first ridge at its intersection. These 
renairs were at first made with a shovel, but the jump scraper, also called 
locally the "horse shovel," closes up the gaps very quickly. The practice gen- 
erally followed is to close up the high side of the checks if the land does not 
cut by running water, but if it cuts, close up the lower side. 

After closing up the checks the ditches are plowed out and then the V-shaped 
"crowder" is run twice through them. On lands inclined to cut it is advis- 
able that tho/ length of the rows to be irrigated should not be over 250 feet, but 
in heavy land this distance can be considerably increased, if necessary, without 
danger of cutting the ridges bv too long a run of water. 

If the checks have been closed up on the low side of the ridge, it is better 
to run the water to the ends of the ditch and water the last row first ; but if 
the high side has been closed up, it is best to water first the row nearest the 
gate or the main ditch, as the case may be, as in each instance dry earth will 
thus be available, if necessary, to close up the checks. The water is run down 
the, row to the end tree, and as soon as the last check is filled it is closed up, 
and so on till all are filled and closed, when the water is turned down the next 
row. 

To do good work it is usual to allow three men for every 50 inches of water, 
but in our own practice we have had much better results by dividing up our 
water and running from 35 to 40 inches to a ditch and allowing two men for 



^ THE CHECK SYSTEM 165 

such streams. In doing this we get better work and find it much easier for the 
men. If everything is well in hand, each man will irrigate about 30 acres in a 
day. 

For turning the water from the ditches into the checks metal dams or tap- 
poons are used. Some of these have a gate for the division of the water when 
the stream is too large and is divided, and two rows are watered at the same 
time. The gate is not a great success, as the water is apt soon to cut its way 
under the tappoon, but it may be much improved by having a shelf for the 
water to drop on after it passes through the opening. The common practice for 
dividing water is to throw a tappoon partly across the ditch, putting a gunny 
sack on the opposite side to prevent cutting by the water. This is, on the 
whole, fully as satisfactory as using the tappoon with a gate. 

All who follow this system should get ready for the water before it comes. 
A great many seem to think that if they ridge up their land, close up the checks, 
and plow out their ditches, everything necessary has been done. Such is not the 
case, as ditches that are liable to cut should be fixed in the weak places with 
brush or burlaps. Old gunny sacks cut open and spread out are excellent for 
this purpose. Occasionally there are places where it is impossible to get a 
perfect ridge. These should be looked up and fixed with a shovel. The jump 
scraper will not entirely close up a check; it generally requires a shovelful or 
two to complete it. It is usual after the water is turned down one row to 
fi.x up the next one, but it is an excellent plan to have a few rows fixed up 
ahead, for there come times when breaks occur and there is not time to make 
the necessary repairs, and when water once gets the start there is apt to be 
much trouble and hard work before it can be put under control, besides doing 
poor work. 

After the ground is dry enough to work, the ridges are split with a listing 
plow or furrower attached to a cultivator. Then the ground should be run 
over with a harrow, setting the teeth to go well in, so as to pulverize the surface 
thoroughly. By using the harrow the ground can be worked about one day 
earlier than with the cultivator, and it also prevents the ground from baking 
till such time as it can be worked with the latter implement, besides doing far 
better work than with the cultivator alone, especially when there is much land 
to go over, as some of it is certain to get too dry before it can be reached, and 
then it will not pulverize well. All trees should be worked around by hand with 
either a fork or hoe. as soon after irrigation as the ground becomes dry enough 
and before it becomes hard. 

Specifications for Homemade Implements for the Check System. 
— The following^ implements, used in preparing the g^round for irriga- 
tion by the check system, were made on the fruit ranch of J. B. Neff, 
Anaheim. CaHfornia, with the tools ordinarily found on a ranch, and 
with but little help from the blacksmith : 

The Ridgcr. — This has sides of 2 by 16-inch pine 7 feet long, stand- 
ing 18 inches apart at the rear and 5 feet apart at the front end. The 
sides may be made of two 2 by 8-inch pieces with 2 by 3-inch battens 
bolted on securely. The front crossbar is of 2 by 4-inch pine 6 feet 2 
inches long, and is set 20 inches from the end. The rear crossbar is 
of 2 by 4-inch pine 4 feet 4 inches long. It is set 7 inches from the end 
of the sides. The diagonal braces are 1 by 3-inch pine 6 feet 10 inches 
long. The short side braces are 2 by 3-inch pine 15 inches long. The 
lower inside edge should be protected by a strip of steel or iron % by 
2 inches extending to and around the front ends, which should be 
beveled to a sharp adge. The inside should also be lined with sheet 
iron 6 or 8 inches above the ^ by 2-inch piece, and should have sheet 
iron pieces extending 16 inches beyond the rear end of the sides, tapered 
and braced in the manner shown in the cut, for the purpose of making 



166 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



the ridger firmer at the top. Every part of the ridger should be firmly 
bolted with ^^-inch bolts, except the % by 2-inch iron, which should 
have 3-16-inch bolts, and the sheet-iron, which may be put on with 
nails. The hooks on sides for hitching draft chain are ^ by Ij^ inches, 
and the draft chain is ^-inch cable chain. 




The "Ridger." 

For levee making in the check system of irrigating trees and vines. 

The V-shaped Crozvder or Ditcher. — This has sides of 2 by 12-inch 
pine and cross-brace of 2 by 9-inch pine. The long side is 7 feet 8 
inches long and short side 3 feet 6 inches long. This is also protected 
by a piece of steel or iron extending entirely around the ditcher and 
bolted with 3-16-inch bolts. The sides come together in a point and 
stand at an angle of 45 degrees. The brace is placed 2 feet 10 inches 
from the point on short side and 3 feet 10 inches from the point on 
long side. It also has two handles, as shown in cut, 3 feet long. These 




The "Crowder." 

Used in the preparation and distribution of water in the check system. 

are made of 2 by 3-inch pine reduced so as to hold conveniently. The 
sloping handle is bolted to the short side. When in use this implement 
stands with the short side elevated at an angle of about 35 degrees, 
and a floor is placed in the triangular space so that it will be level when 
in use. An ordinary wide clevis is used for the draft and is placed as 



IMPLEMENTS FOR CHECKING 167 

shown in the cut. A vertical hole may be made in front of the clevis 
pin and a small rod driven in to strengthen the hold of the clevis. 

The Jump Scraper or Horse Shovel. — This is used for filling gaps 
in the ridges, and is the work of the blacksmith. The beams are 34 by 
134 inches and 30 inches long from the draft ring to the bend down- 
ward. The shovel is of No. 16 sheet-iron, 24 inches long by 18 inches 
deep. The handles are those used on any cultivator. The beams are 
bent to stand 6 inches forward of a square placed on top of the beams. 
The braces are of f^-inch round iron. The shovel is slightly cupped to 
make it hold more earth. 

The Portable Gate or Tappoon. — These are for shutting ditches, 
and are made of No. 16 sheet-iron 2 feet wide and of any desired length, 
but usually 3 feet, 4 feet or 5 feet long. The corners are cut off to a 
circle, starting about 1 foot back of the corner. The handles are made 




The "Jumper." 

Used to complete levees by the "ridger" for the check system. 

of 2 pieces of 1 by 3-inch pine, 12 inches longer than the gate, and are 
placed one on each side of the sheet iron and secured by ^-inch bolts. 

The Combined Check and Furrovvr Method. — An effort to escape 
in some measure tiic puddling of the surface which results from allow- 
ing water to sink away upon finely pulverized soil, lies in the direction 
of breaking up the soil roughly in the bottoms of the checks, which 
facilitates the quick passage of the water into the subsoil. This is done 
by running a small plow or three large cultivator teeth attached to a 
single frame before the ridger is used to form the levees. Mr. A. D, 
Bishop of Orange County, California, uses a combined furrow and 
check system, as shown in the accompanying diagram. He furrows 
the land first with a three-tooth furrower at right angles to the direc- 
tion in which the water is to flow, and then uses the ridger to make 
levees in line with the water, laying out the work so as to get the 
closest approximation to a level. When the levees are made, the jump 
scraper is used and the eftd of each third or fourth furrow bank is con- 
nected with the levees at alternating sides of the check made by the 



168 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



levees. This causes the water to flow through the furrows from side 
to side and distribute itself evenly over the whole ground. The number 
of furrows which can be passed before connecting with the bank de- 
pends upon the slope of the land — the nearer level the land the greater 
the distance that can be left between the connections, and vice versa. In 
this way the water is taken slowly down a grade where it would flow 
too rapidly were it admitted to furrows in the direction of its flow. 

Another combination of the check and furrow system is found 
where the lowest spaces of a slope irrigated by furrows are laid off in 
checks to catch the overflow from the furrows and compel its percola- 
tion at a point which would otherwise receive too little water. The parts 
of a furrow system which lie farthest from the source of supply are 



t^ FURROWS 



p « G^JMMdJ^>S£CtLff'C^X«H^^ 






V ?•'■ i7» V'~' ^^ 'i;*^ 7*1^ 









;3 CUStuStftftii 




Combined check and furrow irrigation. 



obviously least supplied, because long flow can not be maintained there 
without much loss from overflow. Holding the water in checks at the 
lower end — usually for two rows of trees — is quite a help toward even 
distribution. 

The Basin System. — The term basin should be restricted to in- 
closures which do not aim at covering the whole surface, but only a 
small area immediately surrounding the tree. The check system is 
clearly a more rational and perfect method of flooding. When basins 
were used on ground capable of irrigation by the check or furrow sys- 
tems, it was probably due to a misconception which has prevailed also 
in the practice of fertilization, that the tree derived its chief benefit from 
the soil immediately surrounding and beneath its bole, and that distant 
applications were likely to be wasted. Years ago it was held that the 
lateral root extension of a tree was equal to the spread of its branches, 



THE BASIN SYSTEM 169 

but recent investigations have shown that under favorable soil condi- 
tions the root extension is vastly greater. It is not reasonable then to 
restrict water or other plant food to the region chiefly occupied with 
the stay roots and not the feeding roots of the tree, and it is a frequent 
observation that basined trees do not do so well and that Ihcy show 
distress sooner than those under systems which secure more complete 
water distribution. 

To the basin system may, however, be conceded these possibilities : 
(1) Trees may be grown on hillsides too steep for other means of irri- 
gation unless the hillside be previously terraced; (2) the basins afford 
an opportunity to use a very small stream of water by allowing it to 
run for a long time in each basin, thus making a miniature reservoir at 
the base of each tree; (3) for young trees a small amount of water 
may sustain growth, w^hile wath other methods the same amount of 
water would be almost wholly lost by evaporation or percolation, or 
both; (4) the expense of wider application of water and the necessary 
after-cultivation is obviated. 

In planting on hillsides, terracing is the foundation of the basin 
system. Terraces are plowed and scraped out until they have width 
enough to accommodate a line of basins and a ditch at the foot of each 
bank to supply them. The terraces are given a little fall, alternating in 
direction so that the water, starting from the ridge above, is dropped 
through a box, or otherwise let down, from the low end of one terrace 
to the high end of the next, and so on until the stream reaches the bot- 
tom of the slope. As a basin is reached it is filled and closed and the 
water sent along to the next and so on. As these basins are usually 
small and shallow thev are filled two or three times in succession at 
each irrigation. 

Wherever water can be handled in contour ditches or furrows, ter- 
racing should seldom be undertaken for commercial purposes. With 
slopes which do require terracing, basins on the steeper parts are 
largely made by hand labor, after plowing to loosen the whole surface, 
and the operation consists in moving the earth from the upper side of 
the tree so as to form a circular levee on the lower side, until the tree 
stands in a level, roundish pan as large as can be made without too much 
excavation and filling. As the slope becomes less the basins enlarge 
and reach a diameter, finally, w'here the sides can be made by turning 
a small horse or mule around the tree with a plow, the rim being further 
raised and shaped by hand so as to hold 3 inches or more of water 
without danger of breaking away. 

The basins are filled w^th a small stream by ditch or hose or pipe 
line, according to the ground and notion of the irrigator. They are 
filled at such intervals as the water supply admits or the growth seems 
to need. The basin bottom is rarely disturbed. The cracking soil is 
finally given another dose of water to close up its wounds ; meantime the 
frequent surface soaking puddles the soil and the conditions unfavor- 
able to growth arrive sooner or later, according to the disposition of 
the soil to run together by water settling. Drying and cracking is 
lessened by filling the basin with manure or rotten straw or other light 
rubbish, or by a layer rrf coarse sand on the bottom. As the tree grows 
the foliage shades the basin and thus reduces evaporation. 



170 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Where the surface is uneven or the soil too leachy to carry water 
well in a ditch, portable and adjustable carriers are used to advantage. 
Of these, slip-joint pipes of non-rusting metal or of wood, are most 
satisfactory and are coming to be largely used. 

The Furrow System. — The furrow system is the prevailing 
method of irrigating fruit lands except with some soils which can be 
better handled with less water by the check system. The furrow sys- 
tem has, however, a very marked theoretical advantage in the escape 
from saturating the surface soil, which has to dry out again before, it 
can be cultivated, and it is only with difficulty reduced to fine tilth 
after such puddling. Another advantage is in saving the water used 













Large furrow. 

Large furrow irrigation of orange trees at Palermo, Butte County, Cal. 



in moistening soil which has to be dried by evaporation. Other theo- 
retical advantages lie in the even distribution of the water with the 
least displacement of the soil and the introduction of the water to the 
subsoil, where deep-rooting plants should derive their chief sustenance. 
It is becoming quite clear that all these theoretical advantages have not 
been realized by the furrow system as generally practiced, and a num- 
ber of modifications are now being introduced which promise their 
fuller realization. The changes now taking place tend toward reduc- 
ing the difference between what are known as the "large-furrow" and 
the "small-furrow" methods, because the improvement lies chiefly in 
introducing the water more deeply in the soil, as will be shown later, 
and this is done by using fewer and deeper furrows. 



LARGE IRRIGATION FURROWS 171 

- Irrigating by Large Furrows. — Where one to four furrows are 
used, these arc lart^c furrows, while the small-furrow system uses from 
five to eight or more between two rows of trees. Large furrows are 
made with the double-moldboard plow, or with a single plow followed 
by the "crowder," or by plowing out dead furrows between the rows, 
etc. Their number depends upon the size of the trees and the fitness 
of the soil for lateral seepage. They are wide enough and deep enough 
to carry or hold a large stream of water. This method is used chiefly 
for winter irrigation on land which is so nearly level that the water 
will flow slowly into the furrows and stand there until it disappears by 
percolation. It is also used where one or two summer irrigations is all 
that is required to carry the trees through. It is obviously adapted only 
to land of slight and uniform grade. Irrigation by a single furrow cut 
near to the row of trees is a widely prevalent method with young trees. 
When the trees are larger, or when inter-cultures are undertaken, the 
large furrows are multiplied. In this case the water is admitted to the 
furrows from a board flume. Large furrows are often used in a bear- 
ing orchard, the furrows being filled from a lateral ditch, this lateral 
being parallel to the main ditch. In this case the board dam is used 
to divert the lateral into one large furrow after another, and when the 
furrow is filled dirt is thrown in to prevent the reflow of the water into 
the lateral. 

The great variety in large furrow practice is suggested in the fore- 
going. A systematic manner of proceeding is that of ]\rr. A. Trost, of 
Palermo, California, as described by himself: 

The soil is red, gravelly clay, the upper 12 inches without rocks ; below this 
the gravel is more rock. At the depth of 3 or 4 feet the red clay changes 
into a whitish one and water enters it very slowly. My orchard is 12 acres — 
1,120 feet long from north to '^outh and 510 feet from east to west. The north- 
east corner is the highest. Here the water ditch enters, and I run my head 
ditch along the east side from north to south. There are 51 rows of trees in 
that direction, the north and south outside rows being olives. There are 23 
orange trees in the row from east to we^^t and 1 olive tree on the west end. All 
trees are 20 feet apart. I use 24 miner's inches per day for 5 days in the fol- 
lowing manner : I use 4 furrows about 5 or 6 inches deep and about 3 feet 
apart between rows, leaving the rows nearest the trees from 5 to 6 feet from 
the trunks. The 4 lower rows on the west side I cross furrow with 2 furrows 
between the trees. T divide the 24 inches into 51 equal streamlets by using one 
gate for each 4 rows. First turn this amount into the furrow south nearest to 
tree. When the water has moved to the olive tree, I divide the water between 
the 4 furrows for the lower 6 trees and through the cross furrows. The next 
morning I divide the water at the tenth tree for the 4 furrows. On the third 
day I let only one-half the water go down in the furrow south of tree, the 
other in the one north nearest to tree. On the fourth day I turn part of it in 
the middle furrows near the head ditch, and by the fifth day I have my place 
equally wet from one end to the other, taking care that the top soil near the 
trunks of trees remains dry on the surface T keep the soil around the trunks 
of the trees about 2 inches higher for a width of 3 feet. In this way T use all 
the water without running any ofT, and lose only the evaporation. The whole 
amount of water used is 120 inches, equal to 10 inches or 130,000 gallons per 
acre, or 4.5 acre-inches, or 1,200 gallons per tree. 

I irrigate about every four weeks, running the water five days and turning 
it on again three weeks after it is taken off. T have irrigated as early as the 
1st of April and as late ^ns the middle of October, depending on late rains in 
spring and early rains in fall; usually from five to six irrigations per year. .After 
four or five days I cultivate 14 feet wide between the trees from 6 to 8 inches 



172 CALIFORNIA FRUITS! HOW TO GROW THEM 

deep; for this I use a 7-foot cultivator and four horses. Near the trunk of 
the tree I work about two inches deep and a little farther away 4 inches deep, 
using the three-cornered orchard plow with a cultivator 4 feet wide and two 
horses. 

Irrigation by Large Furrows Without Summer Cultivation. — An 

exception to the continuous cultivation of orchard ground which is 
prevalent in the irrigated regions of the Pacific Coast is found in the 
foothills of the Sierra Nevada in California, where furrows are made 
at the beginning of each irrigating season and used continuously during 
that summer. The ensuing winter plowing and early spring cultivation 
are relied upon to keep the soil in good condition. Although this con- 
stitutes an exception and the practice is widely followed for what seems 
to the growers of the region to be a good and sufficient reason, it does 
not militate against the truth of the continuous summer cultivation 
policy which elsewhere prevails, nor does it follow that this policy 
would not be better in some respects even in the region where it is 
abandoned. It is a district of very large water supply, and the arrange- 
ments of the water company are such that the grower must pay for a 
certain number of inches of water by the year, and is entitled to this 
amount of continuous flow. He has to use it or neglect it as it flows, 
and can not get more at one time by not using it at another. For this 
reason he has not the motive for close observation which prevails under 
other conditions, and to escape the cost of summer cultivation and fresh 
furrowing out he has recourse to frequent flows in the old furrows. 
The following interesting account of the prevailing method was pre- 
pared by Mr. W. R. Fountain, of Newcastle : 

Water is supplied almost exclusively by one company, which has met require- 
ments up to date, and seems fixed to supply in excess of demand. It is supplied 
by the miner's inch ; price $45 per inch per season for a constant supply. The 
inch is measured under 6-inch pressure. 

Beginning May 1st, five months is called the irrigating season, but the pur- 
chaser can have the water twelve months per annum if he wants it. The 
water company collects monthly. The purchaser cannot start the season with 
little and increase at pleasure, except upon payment for the full season on the 
basis of the largest amount used at any time. 

With this constant supply we use it constantly, piping to high points and' 
moving it from place to place. When no fruit is ripening it is attempted to 
water a block of trees in twenty-four hours. The water is not checked back, 
but is run in ditches, mostly in one, but occasionally in two, along each row of 
trees or vines. When a variety of fruit is ripening more water is given the 
trees, while after a variety is picked and before any other is nearly ripe the 
effort is made to water each tree every ten or twelve days. Level land and low 
spots stand a good chance, as a rule, to get too much water, and a larger stream 
is used per row to force the water through quickly. Then it is taken off in a 
shorter time than it would be where the trees are on a side-hill and have a good 
drainage. 

About 1 inch for each 8 acres is generally used. This is for deciduous fruits. 
The citrus fruits and berries require watering about once a week; if there is 
good drainage they would prosper if watered every three days. In such ground 
I have not heard of their getting either too much water or too much fertilizer. 
The general practice is to plow, cross plow, and then after each rain cultivate, 
with no cultivation whatever after beginning the use of water. I think an 
occasional cultivation after watering would help. 

There is a tendency for the ditches to become packed after water has been 
flowing through them for some time, in which case but little water soaks into 
the ground. When this occurs I dig a pot hole in the ditch to allow the water to 



APPLICATION OF WATER ON HILLSIDES 173 

soak in, or else loosen the grouiul about tlie trees with a spade and carry the 
ditch through tliis loosened ground. I block out my ditches so that I can get 
my stream through the last tree in about sixteen hours. Where the water has 
not reached the end of some of the ditches, I turn the water into it from a 
stream that is flush, and by keeping a man with a hoe constantly with the water, 
I manage to get it over the field at about 4 p. m. I wet about 350 trees in a 
block on hillsides ; on a flat I wet less, using more water in each stream, and 
changing it about every twelve hours instead of every twenty-four hours. My 
trees grow about 130 to an acre. 

Systematic Distribution of Water on Hillsides. — The Common 
method of carrying water in pipes to the various high points of several 
slopes or "irrigated faces" from which it can be admitted to large fur- 
rows crossing or descending those faces is open to some difficulties and 
disarrangeinents. P. \V. Butler, of Penryn, has had in successful opera- 
tion for several years a system of zigzag ditches for carrying and dis- 
tributing and for catching outflow and redistributing on a lower face. 
This is also a system which makes ditches and furrows but once a year, 
and dispenses with summer cultivation. Mr. Butler's account, as illus- 
trated by the accompanying diagram, is as follows : 

The amount of water generally used in this section for the irrigation of 
deciduous fruit trees is 1 inch to 5 acres of orchard (miner's inch under 6-inch 
pressure), and is applied to each row of trees by one stream of water of sufficient 
quantity to just reach the end of the row. Much of the water is thus 
wasted because of inability to properly adjust its distribution. It is usually 
run twentv-four hours, then changed to other parts of the orchard until 
the whole is covered, which takes about three weeks' time, when the process 
is repeated, continuing throughout the summer, or from May 1 until October 
1. There is no cultivation in the meantime, and at each irrigation the water 
is run in the same ditches. This system is followed in nearly all the 
orchards of Penryn and vicinity, some on quite steep hillsides, which suffer 
when the water is thus applied. I have never liked this method, and for 
many years have used a different system in irrigating all orchards over 
which I have had control. In my home orchard I have a reservoir on the 
highest land, from which water can be conveyed as desired to every part. 
My ditches are run on a grade with a fall from 2 to 3 inches to the rod and 
from 5 to 8 feet apart. At each irrigation the water is run about thirty-six 
hours before changing. The round of the orchard is made in ten to four- 
teen days. None of my small ditches exceeds 400 feet in length. When I 
begin to irrigate a section I turn on from the reservoir water sufficient to 
cover the section in a few hours, then lessen it until it just reaches the end 
of each row. but see that it reaches the end of each row if a little surplus 
passes over. This surplus I take up in a main ditch, to be again used on 
lower ground. This is continued until the lowest part of the orchard is 
reached, and very little water is ever wasted. By running on a grade that 
is so nearly level the water is applied uniformly, even on the driest parts of 
the hill slopes. I run the main distributing ditches in a zigzag manner, tak- 
ing water from these ditches to cover the lower sections. I formerly used 
pipes to lead the water down the steepest grades, but this system I have 
abandoned and now use open zigzag ditches for mains. From the main 
zigzag ditches I do not take the water at the turning point, as there is more 
liability of breakage than if taken when running straight, or at whatever 
point is necessary to keep the distributing ditches on an average of 8 feet 
apart. The length of the zigzag ditches varies according to the slonc of the 
hillside. When steep, the ditch, before turning, must be of greater length 
than where the ground is more level. (See diagram.) I use no gates, but 
bush the openings with ^oarse swale hay. I also bush the turning- points of 
ditches as they are in permanent use throughout the season, and after the 
first few days' use require but little care to keep them in order. These 



174 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



ditches are torn up during the season of cultivation and have to be renewed 
every year. 

I use; a level set on a frame 8.25 feet long and about 2.5 feet high (one 
leg longer than the other) to make any grade desired. Then I drag its 
length on the ground after getting the level, and can mark the line, of ditch 
nearly half as fast as a man can walk. 

During the last ten years I have used many thousand feet of pipel in irri- 
gating, but have found it too expensive to be practicable, and it frequently 
gets clogged, causing much trouble. The zigzag method of taking the water 
down hills on the dry ridges, distributing to right and left, picking it up 
again in zigzag ditches at the end of the rows or system, to be used again 
on lower ground, brings into use the largest quantity where it is most needed 
and utilizes it all without waste. 




NEAKLY LEVEL 



Zigzag ditches. 

Large furrow system on hillsides with zigzag ditches for distribution, catchment, 

and redistribution. 



Irrigating by Small Furrows. — It has already been suggested 
that recently the small furrow method of irrigation is undergoing cer- 
tain modifications. The occasion for the change is that in certain of the 
heavier soils, particularly, the use of water in many shallow furrows 
followed by cultivation results in the formation of a compact layer, and 
this prevents the percolation of the water into the subsoil. This dis- 
covery led many Southern growers to resort to fewer and deeper fur- 
rows, and to new devices to enable the tree to get the benefit of the 
water. There has been wide use of the subsoil plow, with a wedge- 
shaped foot attached to a slim standard rising to the ordinary beam. 
The standard opposes its thin edge to the soil so as to cleave it with 
the least difficulty, and the foot, passing through or beneath the hard- 
pan, lifts and breaks it. The result of the subsoiling is to open a way 



METHODS OF FURROW IRRIGATION 175 

for the water to sink and spread below the hardpan. It is usual to run 
this plow once through the center of the interspace between the rows of 
trees, sometimes at right angles to the irrigation furrows. When this 
is done the water is admitted to the furrows as usual, but instead of 
flowing along smoothly it drops into the track of the subsoiler and runs 
there a long time before rising again to continue its course down the 
furrow. It is the experience of some growers that the water has taken 
five or six days to reach the lower end of the furrows, a distance which 
would have been covered in twenty-four hours if the subsoiler had not 
intervened. This has been shown to result in much water for the sub- 
soil and a notable invigoration of trees which had been famishing, 
although shallow-furrow irrigation had proceeded regularly. 

Recent changes in the furrow method at Riverside, California, are 
described by J\lr. J. H. Reed as follows : 

The handling of the water in the orchard has materially changed in recent 
years. Instead of flooding up, basining, or using shallow furrows, deep furrows, 
from 3 to 5 feet apart, are most generally used. In heavy adobe soils more 
furrows are used than in the more porous granite soils. The most usual length 
of furrows is 40 rods. Every precaution is taken to have the surface wetted as 
little as possible. 

The amount of water run at a time is materially lessened. Formerly the com- 
mon practice was to run 3 inches per acre for twenty-four hours each thirty 
days. Now, 2 inches continuous run for seventy-two hours is found to serve a 
much better purpose, except on loose soils. The general practice in the valley is 
to irrigate once each thirty days. A few of the most careful orchardists had 
found that by intelligent and thorough manipulation of the soil they obtained as 
favorable results from the application of water every si.xty days or more, using 
the same amount as they formerly did at intervals of half that time. The writer 
has watched with much interest an eight-year-old orchard that during the three 
years preceding the present received in all but ten irrigations, the usual amount 
oi water being used only at each four irrigations the tirst year and three irriga- 
tions each the second and third years, with results comparing favorably with 
those on trees of the same age on the same soil in neighboring orchards that 
received the ordinary thirty-day irrigations. While there are few orchardists 
who have the skill and patience required to secure such results, they show the 
possibilities of improved cultivation in conserving moisture. So long as water is 
abundant and not expensive, more frequent irrigations will probably be generally 
practiced; but the advantage of running the water for a longer time, in furrows 
as deep as possible, covering the saturated bottoms as soon as practicable and 
keeping the surface perfectly pulverized and in loose condition, is being generally 
recognized. 

The usual practice is now to have six deep furrows in 20-foot 
spaces. The number varies according to the character of the soil, but 
is in any case less than in the small, shallow furrow system which 
formerly prevailed. 

The recourse to deeper furrows and to the subsoil plowing has 
been made in several citrus fruit districts of Southern California. Its 
success depends upon conditions. There are cases in which too deep 
use of the subsoiler has admitted the water at a point too low for best 
results to the tree which grows on a leachy subsoil, and the cutting of 
roots by the subsoiler has in some cases brought shallow-rooting trees 
into temporary distress. The general conclusion, however, is that 
deeper introduction of Water favors deeper rooting and is very econom- 
ical of water by preventing the loss by evaporation from the surface, 



176 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

which, theoretically, is dry, but which actually, with shallow furrows 
over an irrigation hardpan, becomes too often saturated over nearly 
the whole space between the trees. 

Cement Pipes and Flumes for the Furrow System. — The use of 

cement in the construction of flumes, pipes and outlets for distribution 
has advanced so rapidly during recent years that in nearly all districts 
local cement works can be found, at which irrigation structures and 
appliances of latest design can be studied. Other devices are first de- 
scribed and afterwards regularly advertised in our horticultural jour- 
nals. Analysis of them is beyond the scope of this treatise, but they 
are none the less important and all who contemplate laying out irriga- 
tion systems, both large and small, should consider them carefully. 
It is the function of this work to deal chiefly with home-made appli- 
ances. 

The Board Flume and the Furrow System. — Although in the older 
regions the cement flume is advancing in popularity, important service 
will always be rendered by the home-made board flume where suitable 
lumber is cheap. A detailed account of its construction and operation 
will be widely useful. The following is contributed by Mr. A. S. 
Bradford, of Orange county: 

I consider the board flume best because it is in many places cheapest and 
because it will last fifteen or twenty years in California if made of good soft 
redwood. The common redwood lumber is generally so, but the so-called flume 
lumber is hard, generally, and will warp the flume out of shape. Even in the 
common redwood lumber hard pieces will be found, and these should be avoided. 
My first flume has been in use nine years and is apparently as good as ever. 

The first thing to be considered is getting a flume put in properly, as this 
alone will cause much trouble if not done right. A flume should run nearly on 
a level. It should be placed about two-thirds in the ground at the commence- 
ment, and as soon as it comes out of the ground to about two-thirds of its 
height, there should be a drop made of 1, 2, or 3 inches, if necessary, and then 
carried along as before, so as to keep the entire length of flume practically on a 
level. 

Sixteen-foot lumber is better than longer, as it is lighter to handle. I prefer 
8-inch sides with 18-inch bottom, or, in some cases, 10-inch sides with 16-inch 
bottom. The first section, however, should be about 2 feet wide, narrowed to the 
size of the flume, so as to control the stream. Collars should be put around the 
flume everv 8 feet of distance ; that is, one in the center and one to cover the 
joints at each end. These collars should be 2 by 3 inch stuff on th bottom and 
sides and 1 by three inches on top. This makes a strong, durable flume. The 
length of the flume should be divided, so that the stream will decrease as it goes 
along. The width should be decreased also, say from 16 inches to 14, 12, 10, and 
8 inches, the sides being the same throughout or reduced so as to have 10-inch 
sides on the 16-inch bottom and 8-inch sides on the rest, nailed to the side of the 
bottom, making 7 inches depth inside. Two-inch holes should be about 30 inches 
apart and 2-inch gates placed on the inside instead of outside, as they will col- 
lect less trash, the hole through the wood, if uncovered, making a lodgment for 
leaves, etc. In the narrow and flat flume it is much easier to fix the gates. 

From 8 to 9 furrows for trees set 24 feet apart is sufficient. The streams 
should be run from one-eighth to one-half the capacity of the holes in the flume, 
according to the soil and fall of ground. I commence the stream small and 
increase it if necessary later on. The streams should be kept as near together 
as possible, and when the end is reached the gate should be nearly closed down, 
so as to allow the stream to just trickle to the end. In this manner the soil will 
become thoroughly wet from one end to the other. The streams should be run 
very slowly on most of our soils. A great many failures have been made on 



IRRIGATION BY SPRINKLING 177 

hard soils by running the stream too large and then reducing it. This seems to 
"slick" or cement the soil so that it will not take the water, and the consequence 
is a poor and unsatisfactory irrigation. On the other hand, if the streams are 
started small and allowed to soak the ground as they go along, it is simply 
astonishing how much water can be put in the ground. On sandy soils the 
streams should be larger. A little practice would give any one the desired 
information. 

About three rows of trees at the lower end should be blocked up, provided 
one has no place where the overflow water could be used. This last provision 
is the better, however, as there would be only about 10 inches of water run over 
the last three or four hours, and a thorough job would be done from one end 
to the other. 

I making furrows I have an extension made for my cultivator to bolt on 
each side and use four plows. With this extension I can wet the whole ground 
thoroughly. The furrows will extend under the limbs of the trees, and by 
making a slight curve around each tree the ground will become wet in. the rows 
as well as between. 

As compared with the check system, the furrow method, properly handled, 
makes the soil light and loose, while the check system is apt to pack; the soil, 
rendering it lifeless and leaving it so that'it will not retain moisture long. Be- 
sides, the cost of ridging and extra labor in handling water in checks for one 
season will nearly pay for the flume, by which one man can do the irrigating. 
Two horses will furrow out 10 acres in half a day, and a little) hand labor at 
the flume will connect the furrows. In 'the check system generally a disk is run 
first where the ridges are to be made, and then the ridger is run with four 
horses; then jump scraper is run to stop up one side of the blocks; then ditches 
must be made ; then from 2 to 3 men are required to handle the water by shut- 
ting up the checks when 'filled. Afterwards the ridges must be plowed down 
before the ground can be harrowed and got in condition to cultivate. At a 
glance one can see that it costs fully three times 'as much to irrigate by the check 
system as by the furrow system, and with the latter the soil acts more as it 
does after a rain. 

OVERHEAD IRRIGATION 

Although CaHfornians have always been strongly impelled by the 
desire to get irrigation water away from contact with the air and into 
the soil as directly as possible, to escape losses by evaporation and to 
maintain a loose soil-surface, sprinkling methods have recently become 
matters of considerable expenditure. Such systems are in operation 
in the orange orchards of Robert Baird of Porterville and R. D. 
Williams of Exeter. The former has overhead perforated pipes sup- 
ported on redwood posts ; the latter has underground pipes with a 
stand-pipe rising through the center of each fourth tree and sur- 
mounted with a revolving sprinkler. The cost of installation in each 
case is about $150 per acre.* The desirability of such sprinkling 
methods is still to be demonstrated. In both cases the water is forced 
into the pipes by pumps. 



DEVELOPMENT AND STORAGE OF WATER 

It is, obviously, beyond the limitations of this work to attempt an 
extended review of irrigation enterprises and practices. The enter- 
prises undertaken by capitalists, or by co-operation among settlers, 

•Details are given in the Pacific Rural Press, July 13, 1912. 



178 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

require the services of competent engineers. All these matters are too 
great in extent and variety to be discussed in this work. As, however, 
it has been the aim of the writer to aid the inexperienced planter to 
help himself in small efforts, a little space will be given to suggestions 
as to how a planter may develop and use such small water supply as 
may be derived from spring, small creek or well, on his own land 
without employing an engineer. 

Running Lines for Irrigating Ditches. — How far to go up a 

creek in order to bring water out upon a given piece of land is a ques- 
tion which frequently arises in individual practice. There is also doubt 
as to how much fall should be given to the ditch. The fall required 
by a ditch or canal depends upon the amount of water which it is 
desired that it shall discharge, and upon the width and depth with 
which it is intended that the water should flow. It may also be 
dependent upon the character of the soil in which the ditch is to be 
constructed, and upon the peculiarities of the water itself. A strong 
current in soft soil may cause mischievous erosions. Water carrying 
much sediment must never be allowed to move sluggishly, as clear 
water sometimes may. It is best to state the requirements to a compe- 
tent engineer and act on his suggestion, or secure the counsel of a 
neighbor who has had experience with similar soil and water. 

Having decided what fall to give the ditch, the nearest point of 
which water can be taken out of the creek to be brought to a certain 
piece of land is found by commencing with the point at which the 
water is to be delivered (generally the highest point of the land to be 
irrigated), and running up stream a line which has the inclination 
intended for the ditch. 

To stake out this line when no special hindrances are in the way, 
use a home-made leveling instrument constructed as follows: 

With sound, straight-edged lumber a triangle is made, as indicated in the 
sketch. The three pieces, A B, 6 feet long, B C, 12 feet long, and C A, 4 feet 
long, are made fast to each other at A B, and C. The board, A D, is fastened 
to the triangle at right angles to B C. Near A, on the board, A D, a plumb-line 
is made fast. The plumb, like a mason's plumb, hangs in a hole at F, so that 
when A D is vertical, the string hangs very near the surface of the board, A D. 

It will be seen that when A D is exactly vertical, 5 C is exactly horizontal, 
if the angles at D are true right angles. An ordinary carpenter's square used in 
the construction of the apparatus will insure sufficient accuracy in the position 
of A D. 

In marking on the board, A D, however, the line in which the string of the 
plumb will hang when 5 C is exactly horizontal, more care is required. Two 
pegs are driven, as far apart as B and C, for these points to rest on. The high- 
est one 'is driven into the ground until the plumb-line follows about the center 
line of the board, A D. Having marked this position of the plumb-line, the 
triangle is reversed so that the end B rests on the peg, where before we had the 
end C, and vice versa. Should the plumb-line be in a position at variance with 
the first one marked on the board, then the correct position for the B C horizon- 
tal will be exactly in the middle between the two found by the aid of the two 
pegs. 

It will) frequently be found convenient to have a scale of feet marked off on 
B C. Holes in the pieces A B and C A at E E, or handles, will make the triangle 
convenient to carry. Only two men are necessary in using it. 



RUNNING LINES FOR DITCHES 



179 



To use this instrument for locating the line of the ditch, calculate 
the amount which your line should rise between each two pegs. Drive 
a peg at the starting point with its top say six inches from the general 
surface of the grt)un(l. Hold one end of the leveling apparatus above 
this peg by exactly that amount which the line arises per each instru- 
ment length (B C). and swing the other end around into the direction 
from which the ditch is to come, until, when level, it is just six inches 
above the ground. Drive a peg here, which will, like the first, be six 
inches high, and proceed as before. Care should be taken to give the 
top of each peg exactly the correct elevation. The level must be 
horizontal when resting on any peg, and raised exactly that amount 
which the line rises per level length, above the preceding peg. It will 




A home-made leveling instrument. 



be found convenient to use a carefully prepared block to hold on the 
top of each stake at the rear end of the level instead of trusting to 
measurement each time. 

Locating Contour Lines for Checks or for Distributing Ditches. 
— This work can be done with the aid of the level above described. 
For instance, to locate a contour (a line of equal elevation), as 
required in the construction of a check levee, drive a peg until its top 
has a convenient elevation from the ground, say one foot. Rest one 
end of the triangle on this peg and swing the other around until, when 
5 C is horizontal, this other end has exactly the same elevation from 
the ground as the top of the peg. At this point drive a second peg and 
proceed as before. If the tops of the pegs be chosen as the height of 
the levee, they may be retained as grade stakes as well as line stakes 
for the embankment. 

Storing Water from Small Sources. — For individual uses quite 
a respectable water supply can sometimes be developed from apparently 



180 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

mean sources. This can be done by clearing out and opening up hill- 
side springs, and often by tunneling into the hillside to intercept sub- 
terranean water-flows, or by pumping from a well. Even a small 
spring, yielding but two quarts per second, would be sufficient to 
irrigate several acres in fruit trees. To derive the greatest benefit from 
small springs, however, a reservoir is necessary, in which the flow of 
twelve to twenty-four hours, or even a longer period, can be accumu- 
lated, and then discharged as required. It is by using water in driblets 
that many springs are wasted. A spring supplying even one and a half 
inches of water would be wholly swallowed up by a thirsty soil within 
two hundred feet of its source, when, by arresting the flow and accumu- 
lating it in a reservoir and discharging at intervals in a volume four 
times as large, it would more than cover eight times the surface. A 
spring flowing two quarts per second will discharge forty-three thou- 
sand two hundred gallons in twenty-four hours. This would require 
a reservoir forty by twenty feet, and seven feet deep, or double that 
width if the depth is decreased one-half. The shallower it can be 
made the better, for many reasons, but especially on account of the 
temperature of the water. That of springs is generally too low in 
summer for immediate use, and its value is greatly enchanced by being 
raised to an equal or greater temperature than that of the air. This 
is quickly done by exposure in a shallow pond. A reservoir can be 
constructed entirely in the ground where the slope will admit of it, 
and by lining the bottom and sides with clay well puddled, will answer 
for most purposes. Some are built of adobe, backed with earth and 
plastered on the inner side with hydraulic cement. Concrete of lime, 
sand, and broken stone, is however, the best material, where lime can 
be readily obtained, and any person with ordinary mechanical skill can 
construct them. The following hints on a dirt reservoir may be 
suggestive : 

A reservoir should be built on the highest part of the tract sought to be irri- 
gated by scraping the earth from the outside and from such a large area as not 
to affect the utility of the land from which it is taken. With a levee all around 
5 feet high, 5 feet of water could be carried safely. The slopes ought to be 
tv/o to one on the inside. A reservoir 20 feet square and 4 feet deep would hold 
12,000 gallons. With the slopes as above the reservoir should be measured two 
feet from the bottom, or half way up the 4 feet of water ; consequently to lay out 
a reservoir to hold 12,000 srallons, 'put the stakes 12 feet square and build. For 
any other size one take 8 feet off the same as this : A reservoir 25 feet square 
will hold 18,750 gallons and would be 17 feet square at the bottom; one 30 feet 
square would hold 27,000 gallons and would be 22 feet at the bottom ; one 35 
feet square — 27 at the bottom — will hold 36,000 ' gallons ; one 40 feet square — 32 
on the bottom — will hold 48,000 gallons. This spread upon the surface of an 
acre would be a little more than 1^ inches of rainfall. 

Almost any loam or soil will hold water with a little puddling. The cheapest 
way to puddle is to build a pen the size of the intended reservoir, including 
at least a portion of that to be under the embankment, wet it very wet, put some 
hogs in the pen and Iceep feeding them barley, a little at a time, so as to make 
them not only walk around, but root for the barley. A half sack of barley fed 
to eight or ten hungry hogs in half a day will make a good puddle. If it did 
not work satisfactorily, the water could be taken off and the bottom covered 
about an inch deep with coarse sand' mixed one part to five with Portland cement, 
put in dry, and let it be covered slowly. A barrel of cement may be counted at 
about 4 cubic feet and ' with the mixture above would cover the first-named 



LIFTING WATER FOR IRRIGATION 181 

reservoir about l-M inches. This would make it tight. The supply pipe should 
come up from the bottom, so that the lift would never be tnore than the height 
of the surface. 

Loss of Water by Seepage. — The great loss of Water by seepage 
during a long run has led to the cementing of ditches, and to the use 
of miles of large wooden, concrete and iron pipe by the irrigation 
companies of Southern California; also, where the slope is rapid, 
paving ditches with rock has been resorted to. Similar efforts naturally 
suggest themselves to the user of a small water supply to save his 
flow from loss. The lining of ditches to prevent seepage is being 
tested by the California Experiment Station at Berkeley, and publica- 
tion of results is being made.* Where lumber is cheap the use of a 
board flume is an available means of saving water, when the soil is 
coarse and leachy. 

Irrigation from Flowing Wells. — A considerable area of orchard 
is irrigated from flowing wells in different parts of the State. Nearly 




End view of irrigating wheel. 

everywhere in the artesian districts there are local well-borers who 
have kept records of the strata traversed in their work, and can 
estimate closely the cost of securing water by this method. 

Lifting Water from Flowing Ditch or Stream. — Where a stream 
has a rapidity of two miles or more per hour, and a lift to a height of 
six to sixteen feet will give head enough to distance the water over 
a considerable area, there is nothing cheaper than the current wheel 
which is largely used in this State. The engraving gives an end view 
of such a wheel. Eight pairs of arms, carrying flat buckets like those 
of a steamboat paddle-wheel, extend from a hub rotating on metal 
bearings. At either end, or both ends, of each bucket are fixed wooden 
or tin water boxes which fill themselves on entering the water, and 
on being brought to the highest point of rotation empty themselves 
into a receiving trough. This trough supplies the distributing ditches, 

•Bulletin 188 and Circular 114, University of California Experiment Station, Berkeley. 



182 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

etc., and its inner end is so placed that it comes under the projecting 
buckets of the wheel without interference with the motion of the arms. 
The current of water in the channel underneath forces the buckets 
down stream, the latter delivering in the opposite direction at the top. 
By using a double set of boxes, one at each end of each bucket, the 
water may be delivered on both sides simultaneously. A little experi- 
menting will indicate the proper size boxes, which depends upon the 
velocity and volume of water in the channel, as well as to the amount to 
be delivered. 

At the Fancher Creek Nursery, in Fresno county, a wheel is used 
eighteen feet in diameter, and carries sixteen buckets, which empty 
into a trough sixteen feet above the ditch. The wheel lifts about one 
cubic foot in two seconds. 



PUMPING FOR IRRIGATION 

The use of pumps for irrigation is continually increasing. The 
capacity of pumps, their ease and cheapness of operation in this land 
of oil wells and of ponderous waterfalls whose power can be trans- 
formed into electric energy, warrant the conclusion that in many places 
water can be lifted from below more cheaply than it can be brought 
long distances by ditch ; and that the supply is more constant and 
subject to the users' command and convenience. In all parts of the 
State well-boring and digging and pump construction have advanced 
very rapidly. Pumping plants of all capacities, from the greatest of 
the gasoline class, lifting five thousand gallons per minute from a 
depth of twenty-five feet, down to the plant with a throw of three 
hundred gallons per minute, all styles of motors and pumps are being 
constantly multiplied. These plants are being placed upon wells in 
the orchard or in the vicinity, or upon adjacent streams or ponds. 
Many new designs by California inventors are coming into use. It 
would require a volume to contain any adequate account California's 
recent progress in these lines. Economic pumping is governed by so 
many considerations that no general statement would be conclusive in 
any specific case. Each orchardist must ascertain his own conditions 
and then confer with trustworthy manufacturers or their agents as to 
what will meet his requirements.* "> 



WATER MEASUREMENT 

The Miner's Inch. — Although the miner's inch, as commonly 

measured, is open to objection becavise of inaccuracy, from an engi- 
neer's point of view, it is so easily applied that it must remain a popular 
recourse. It consists in causing the water to flow through an opening, 



*Full details of the cost and flow from pumps drawing from various depths and operated 
by various motors are given in the publications of the irrigation investigations to which refer- 
ence has previously been made. Also, Circular 117, California Experiment Station: "The 
Selection and Cost of a Small Pumping Plant," by B. A. Etcheverry. 



HOW TO MEASURE MINERS INCHES 



183 



the capacity of which is known, and which is readily capable of adjust- 
ment to the flow in any case. A simple form of this device and its 
use is shown in the illustration, which represents a board 1 inch thick, 
12 inches wide, and about 8 feet long. The opening is 1 inch wide and 
50 inches long, and the distance from the top of the board to the center 
of the opening is exactly 4 inches on the up-stream side. On the 
down-stream side the opening is beveled so that the hole presents sharp 
edges to the stream. A sliding board is hung upon the top of the 
first board, with a strip screwed along its upper edge, this sliding 
board being wide enough to cover the opening on the up-stream side. 
In the slot there is a closely-fitting block, made to slide on the beveled 
edges and fastened by a screw to the sliding board. It is obvious, 







S^^^^^^^^&^feSfc'- 



..>>tl 






-:^:^^ 



pnp'^ -^ 






Measuring miner's inches in a small stream or ditch. 



then, that when the sliding board is moved backward or forward, by 
means of its end, which is extended for a handle, the block moves in 
the slot and determines the length of the opening. 

In operation the board is placed in the stream as shown in the 
figure, so as to dam the flow completely, and the sliding board is 
moved backward and forward until the water is all passing through 
the slot, the water being kept up to the top of the board, or 4 inches 
above the center of the opening. The length of the opening measures 
the number of miner's inches of water flowing through. If the flow 
is too great to pass through the opening 1 inch wide, the opening may 
be made wider, the water still to be kept 4 inches above the center of 
the opening. The laws of several States provide that in devices for 
measuring water for sale by the miner's inch the opening shall be 6 
inches high and shall be provided with a slide as shown in the picture. 
The number of miner's inches then discharged is equal to the number 
of square inches in Ihe opening. The assumption made that the dis- 
charge is proportional to the size of the opening is not true, but the 



184 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

error in measuring small quantities is not great enough to be taken 
into consideration. By converting the results of measurements in 
miner's inches to gallons, cubic feet, or some other familiar unit, it 
may be determined how long it will take the stream to fill a reservoir 
or cover a given field with the necessary depth of water. This unit 
is readily convertible into cubic feet or gallons or acre-inches of water, 
according to the time the water flows. 

The following data will be helpful in computations : One miner's 
inch, as described above, equals 0.1496 gallons per second, 8.976 gal- 
lons per minute, 538.56 gallons per hour, 12,925.44 gallons per day; 
0.02 cubic foot per second, 1.2 cubic feet per minute, 72 cubic feet per 
hour. One acre-inch of water (that is, 1 inch in depth over an acre 
of surface) equals 27,152 gallons, or 3,630 cubic feet, and 1 miner's 
inch will supply this quantity in about 50.4 hours. Thus a simple 
calculation shows that a little stream of 5 miner's inches will supply 
enough water to cover an acre 2.3 inches deep in about 23 hours — a 
fair amount for one irrigation of soil of average character if it has 
not been allowed to become too dry before the application. In fact this 
is an average amount actually used for an irrigation of shallow-rooted 
plants like most field and garden crops. 

Weir Measurement. — The term "weir" is not always understood 
by those who use it. The term can properly be used only for structures 
designed to allow the water to flow over the crest with a considerable 
fall on the down stream side. There are a large number of forms of 
weirs, taking their names from the shape of the weir notch, or the 
form of crest. The triangular weir has a V-shaped notch. The 
rectangular weir has a horizontal crest with vertical sides. Both of 
these forms of weir are good, when used by the expert irrigator or 
engineer who understands the principles and factors which enter into 
their calculations. In order to avoid the variable factors which enter 
into the calculations for the flow of water over weirs, Cipoletti invented 
the form of weir which has taken his name and which is in general 
use throughout the irrigated sections of the world. 

The Cipoletti Weir. — The Cipoletti Weir has a thin horizontal 
crest, the sides of the weir notch sloping back from the vertical at an 
angle equal to one inch in horizontal for every four inches in vertical. 
This, for each additional inch in depth the weir notch widens on each 
side one-fourth of an inch, or a total addition of width of one-half 
inch. A weir having a length of crest of one foot, and designed to be 
eight inches in depth, will have a top width of notch of 16 inches. 

When the weir box is placed, care should be taken to have the 
bottom of the notch or crest, level. An ordinary carpenter's spirit 
level may be used for this purpose. When the crest is horizontal, 
one end of the spirit level is placed on the center of the crest, and 
when level the other end will mark the point for the zero of the weir 
gauge. In rough work a nail may be driven part way into the side of 
the box, the top of the nail being level with the crest of the weir. A 
thin plate of brass is to be preferred to a nail. In other cases gauges 
are inserted on the sides of the flumes and properly marked in tenths 



DETAILS OF WEIR MEASUREMENT 



185 



of feet or inches. At other times a post from 1 to 2 inches square is 
placed in the center of tlie box and several feet above the weir board. 
The top of this post is on a level with the crest. This is the method 
shown in the accompanying sketch. 

How to Measure Water Over Weirs. — The method to follow 
can best be shown by examples. Let us suppose that a farmer has 
made and placed a box similar to the one shown in the drawing, after 
turning in the water and allowing it some time to attain a uniform 
flow he proceeds to the weir box and with an ordinary rule measures 
the depth of water flowing through the weir notch. Bear in mind that 




'iiSfT*^' 



Weir box in operation showing post from which to measure depth of stream. 



this measurement is not made at the weir board, but at the regular 
gauge, whether it be a nail, brass plate or post, as already described. 
We will assume that the depth as found by the rule is Zyi inches. 
Now by referring to the table below he follows down the first column 
until ZYi is reached. The weir used is one foot, and under the column 
marked "1-foot weir" and opposite the figure 3^/2 already found, he 
finds the cubic feet per minute or the gallons per minute flowing over a 
1-foot weir when the depth of water is 3^ inches. The equivalent 
flow in gallons per* minute for any given length of weir and depth of 
water over the crest was obtained from the accompanying table : 



186 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Discharge over Cipoletti Weirs 



Depth of water 
on crest. 



1-foot weir. 



lyi-ioot weir. 



2-foot weir. 



3-foot weir. 



a SL ^c 3" 

•"i uo. OB uS. 

1 0.08 36 0.12 

IH 0.10 44 0.15 

134 0.11 51 0.17 

IH 0.13 59 0.20 

13^ 0.15 67 0.22 

m 0.17 75 0.25 

IH 0.19 84 0.28 

V/s 0.21 93 0.31 

2 0.23 103 0.34 

2H 0.25 113 0.38 

2^ 0.27 123 0.41 

23/8 0.30 133 0.44 

2/2 0.32 144 0.48 

25^ 0.34 154 0.52 

23/^ 0.37 166 0.55 

2^ 0.39 177 0.59 

3 0.42 189 0.63 

3/8 0.45 201 0.67 

3/4 0.47 213 0.71 

33/g 0.50 225 0.75 

3/2 0.52 238 0.80 

354 0.56 251 0.84 

3H 0.59 264 0.88 

37/8 0.62 277 0.93 

4 0.65 291 0.97 

4^ 0.68 304 1.02 

4/4 0.71 319 1.07 

43^ 0.74 333 1.11 

4/2 0.77 347 1.16 

45/^ 0.81 362 1.20 

434 0.84 376 1.26 

4% 0.87 391 1.31 

5 0.91 406 1.36 

S/s 0.94 422 1.41 

514 0.97 437 1.46 

5^ 1.01 453 1.51 

5^ 1.05 469 1.57 

55^ 1.08 485 1.62 

53/1 1.12 501 1.68 

5^ 1.15 517 1.73 

6 1.20 534 1.79 

6/8 

6^4 

63/^ '.. 

61/^ 

65/^ 

6.34 

6^ 

7 






55 

65 

76 

88 

100 

113 

126 

140 

154 
169 
184 
199 
215 
231 
248 
262 

283 
301 
319 
338 
357 
376 
396 
416 

436 
456 
478 
499 
521 
543 
564 
587 

609 
633 
656 
679 
703 
727 
752 
776 

801 



0.16 
0.19 
0.23 
0.26 
0.30 
0.34 
0.38 
0.42 

0.46 
0.50 
0.55 
0.59 
0.64 
0.69 
0.74 
0.80 

0.84 
0.90 
0.95 
1.00 
1.06 
1.12 
1.18 
1.24 

1.30 
1.36 
1.42 
1.48 
1.55 
1.61 
1.68 
1.74 

1.81 
1.88 
1.95 
2.02 
2.09 
2.16 
2.23 
2.31 

2.38 
2.46 
2.53 
2.61 
2.68 
2.76 
2.84 
2.92 

3.00 



~ C 

O E 

73 
87 

101 
117 
139 
150 
168 
187 

206 
225 
245 
266 
287 
309 
332 
355 

378 
402 
426 

451 
476 
502 
528 

554 

582 
609 
637 
665 
694 
723 
753 
782 

813 
843 
874 
906 
938 
970 
1.002 
1,034 

1,069 
1,102 
1,136 
1,170 
1,205 
1,240 
1,275 
1,310 

1,346 



0.24 
0.29 
0.34 
0.39 
0.45 
0.50 
0.56 
0.62 

0.68 
0.75 
0.82 
0.89 
0.96 
1.03 
1.11 
1.18 

1.26 
1.34 
1.42 
1.51 
1.59 
1.68 
1.76 
1.85 

1.94 
2.04 
2.13 
2.22 
2.32 
2.42 
2.52 
2.62 

2.72 
2.82 
2.92 
3.03 
3.13 
3.24 
3.35 
3.46 

3.57 
3.68 
3.80 
3.91 
4.03 
4.14 
4.26 
4.38 



u6 

109 
130 
152 
175 
200 
226 
252 
280 

308 
338 
368 
399 
431 
464 
497 
531 

566 
602 
639 
676 
714 
753 
792 
832 

872 

913 

956 

998 

1,041 

1,084 

1,129 

1,174 

1,219 
1,266 
1.312 
1.359 
1.407 
1,455 
1,503 
1,553 

1,603 
1,653 
1.704 
1,755 
1,807 
1,859 
1.912 
1,966 



4.50 2,020 



HINTS ON IRRIGATION 187 

RANDOM SUGGESTIONS 

Without attcmptincr an impossible thin^, to-wit, to furnish explicit 
directions for the practice of irri£;;ation, for much of it every man must 
learn for himself by experience, a few sug£;^estions may be noted, even 
thouu:h more important ones do not come to mind. 

Usually water should be prevented from actual contact with the 
trunk of the tree. Citrus trees are especially sensitive to such contact, 
and resent it by "gum disease," which was formerly far more preva- 
lent in the State than now. Care must, therefore, be taken not to set 
trees which are to be irrij^^ated, too low. It is better to raise them up 
a little and draw the earth up around them to prevent approach of 
the water, but tiiis must not be overdone. 

If possible, the ditch should be run on the shady side of the tree, 
because reflected sunshine from the water surface may burn the bark. 

In examining soil to ascertain dryness, one must dig deeply, for 
often an upper layer will be fairly moist, if well cultivated, while lower 
layers, where the feeding rootlets are, will be arid. Therefore, when 
trees, or vines are suffering, dig far down in examining the soil. 

In irrigating, thorough, deep soaking is necessary, and examination 
must be made to see if an artificial hardpan which prevents the descent 
of the water has been formed. 

Be careful not to continue irrigation too late in the season. It will 
prevent the proper dormancy of deciduous trees, and if more fall 
irrigation is given citrus trees than they need for perfecting the fruit, 
the trees will continue growing tender shoots until they are injured 
by severe frosts. On the other hand, it is often desirable to give decid- 
uous trees a draft of water after the fruit has been gathered, if the soil 
is so dry that the tree is likely to drop its leaves too soon, and wake 
from its dormancy with the first rains. Many times the fall blooming 
of deciduous trees, which is very undesirable, may be prevented by 
keeping them growing later in the summer by moderate irrigation. 

If trees or vines, in regions usually irrigated, are to be grown 
without irrigation, it is important that the grower be more than usually 
thorough and constant with his summer cultivation. In trying the 
non-irrigation experiment, one should, of course, begin with young 
trees which have not been irrigated, and not usually expect success 
by withdrawing the water from trees which have been accustomed to 
it, and have developed a root system accordingly. 

While waiting for an "irrigating system." young trees can be kept 
going with a water wagon. With a galvanized tank on a wagon three 
men went over a 60-acre orchard three times, taking four days for each 
irrigation, each day's expense being less than $10. This made twelve 
days, or $120. or $2 per acre. One man went ahead to scoop out 
around each tree, and after the water was put on he covered it up, 
to keep the soil loose and prevent loss by evaporation. He could keep 
ahead because of the loss of time of the team going after water and 
returning. From the tank ran two large hose, the water being siphoned 
off at the basin near each tree till about four or five gallons of water 
were put on. Then the hose was bent back so the water could not flow 
out, and they advanced to the next tree. 



188 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

SUB-IRRIGATION IN CALIFORNIA 

The word "sub-irrigated" is freely used in California to describe 
land which is moistened below by underflow or seepage from streams 
or springs, or from open irrigation ditches, traversing higher levels. 
This land is sub-irrigated, it is true, but there is no system about it, 
except the natural distribution of water, which is to seek its level. 
Some of our most productive lands are of this character, and where 
the soil and subsoil are fitted to the movement of this living water, 
and not apt to retain it up to the point of saturation, most satisfactory 
growth of deep-rooting field crops and of trees and vines are secured. 
But this is not sub-irrigation in the ordinary signification of the term. 

Several systems of sub-irrigation by subterranean pipes have been 
devised by California inventors, but none have passed beyond the 
experimental stage, and no acreage has been continually operated. 

DRAINAGE IN CALIFORNIA 

There was for a long time a very erroneous popular generalization 
that California soils do not need drainage ; that in a dry state the aim 
should be to retain the moisture, not to part with it. It is, of course, 
true that we have vast areas of naturally well-drained soil, upon which 
any money spent for drainage would be in a great part thrown away, 
but we have, also, both in the valley and on the hillsides, localities 
where, by peculiar character and conformation of the subsoil, water is 
held in the soil until evaporated from the surface, and the result is a 
boggy, miry condition, which prevents proper winter cultivation, and 
at the same time injures the roots of the trees or vines. This defective 
cultivation, added to the puddling effect of standing water, makes the 
soil dry out completely under the fervid sun of summer, and the result 
is that the wettest soil of the winter is the driest in the summer, and 
plants which are injured by soaking in winter suffer again from lack 
of moisture and sustenance in summer. Thus it is a fact, clearly 
proven by observation and experience, that thorough under-drainage 
removes surplus water in winter, and ministers to the retention of 
moisture in summer. More than this, a soil puddled by standing water 
can not present its contents in available form for plant nutrition, and 
besides, it loses the fertilizing effects of atmospheric currents, which 
pass through an open, well-dried soil. Wet land is cold and late in 
spring, and hot as a baked brick under the summer sun ; it is no fiction 
of the imagination to say that well drained land is warm in winter 
and cool in summer — that is, cool to a degree which favors quick and 
free root growth, and cool enough to escape the parching effect of 
deeply baked soil. 

These, and a host of similar considerations, which have made 
under-drainage popular in older countries, are of weight in California. 
Possibly, as a rule, because of our vast area of deep, kind loams, the 
proportion of land needing drainage in this State is less than else- 
where, and yet there is a vast extent of country to be improved by 
tilling. There have been large losses of trees from planting upon soils 



IMPORTANCE OF DRAINAGE 189 

defective in this respect. The evil has resulted from excessive rainfall 
and excessive irrigation, either direct or by underHow from adjacent 
irrigations. In some places this latter movement of water has brought 
alkali to assist in the ruin of the trees and vines. The cure is drainage 
to sufficient depth and with good outlet for the drainage water. 

Information on the construction of under-drains is too available 
through other sources to call for its presentation in this connection. 

Drainage and Irrigation. — A special importance attaches to com- 
plete and systematic drainage in connection with irrigation. There 
is pressing need of such provision where the soil has become overloaded 
by seepage water from irrigation ditches, and it is well that people in 
such situations arc waking up to the need of coupling drainage outlets 
with their irrigation inlets. Another matter closely allied to this is the 
action of alkali on soils thus artificially watersoaked. This has been 
made the subject of a special publication, to which allusion has already 
been made in Chapter III. Drainage is plainly essential, both in 
individual farms and in districts where the water level is rising too 
high, and the striking statements given below by Professor Hilgard 
should incite all to give immediate attention to the needs of vines and 
trees in this regard. 

The following summary of drainage needs, and the advantage of 
providing drainage when needed, is made by Professor Hilgard : 

In the valleys and plains of the arid irrigation countries the soils are pre- 
dominantly of a light, sandy or silty nature, easily penetrated to great depths 
by water and air. With these the roots of plants also reach to such depths, 
drawing therefrom not only moisture, but also plant food, which in these soils 
is, as a rule, very abundant. The plants of the arid region thus are enabled to 
utilize nearly as many feet of soil mass as in the regions of summer rains inches 
would be drawn upon; and it is evident that this advantage, which postpones for 
a long time the need of fertilization, should not be lightly thrown away. Each 
farm in the arid region has several similar ones underground, which with proper 
management can be fully utilized. 

But this presupposes that the water, air and roots can all penetrate under irri- 
gated culture as they do in the natural condition. It means that the ground 
water level shall not be allowed to rise to such an extent as to prevent the pene- 
tration and healthy life of the roots in the depths of the soil mass. If by inten- 
tional or careless over-irrigation, or by leakage from the ditches, the water 
level is allowed to rise within a few feet of the surface, the wonderfully pro- 
ductive lands of the arid valleys are reduced to the same condition as are those 
of the humid countries; a shallow layer of surface soil, within which alone the 
roots can exercise their functions of plant nutrition. The natural result is that 
this layer soon becomes exhausted, and copious artificial fertilization is required 
to maintain profitable production. 

And even this is the most favorable case. When, in addition, the upward 
movement of the soil water carries with it the entire mass of salts of various 
kinds which exist in all arid soils, and brings them within reach of surface 
evaporation, these "alkali" salts impregnate the soil to such an extent as to 
render the cultivation of many crops unprofitable, or sometimes altogether 
impossible. 

Summarizing the advantages of systematic land draining it may be said that: 

1. It prevents the drowning out of the deeper roots of plants by the rise or 
fluctuations of the ground water, by which the vineyards and orchards are so 
frequently rendered unprofitable. 

2. It prevents, or at least limits definitely, the shallowing of the soil caused 
by high-lying ground water, resulting in the need of early and copious fcrtiliza- 



190 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

tion, which would otherwise not have been called for in many years. The annual 
cost of such fertilization would soon exceed the first cost of drainage. 

3. Drainage does away definitely with the alkali evif. When drainage is 
established the land can easily be so handled as either to remove all the alkali, 
or to leave in the soil so much of it as n:ay be rationally considered beneficial, on 
account of its usual content of valuable and highly available plant food. To 
prevent the waste of much of this soluble plant food, the use of gypsum is also 
valuable ; but subsequent swamping of the land would cause a return of the black 
alkali unless drainage were provided for. 

In view of the facts that water-logged lands are still being sold 
to the unwary for fruit planting ; that sometimes lands are offered with 
the attractive promise of an irrigation supply when they actually 
need a drainage system ; that on such lands every year of large rainfall 
brings areas of trees into distress and inflicts considerable losses, these 
declarations of Professor Hilgard should be most carefully kept in 
mind. 



PART THREE: ORCHARD FRUITS 



CHAPTER XVI 



COMMERCIAL FRUIT VARIETIES 

What fruit to plant, or what kind of a bearing orchard to buy as 
an investment, are questions which can not be answered, in this treatise. 
The planters on new land and the investors in improved land must 
answer them for themselves — forming their judgments after securing 
facts which seem to them a proper basis for such a business decision. 
It is the conviction of the writer that all fruits which have demonstrated 
commercial suitability in California, when properly placed under the 
soil, temperature and moisture conditions which favor their best 
growth and productiveness, may be counted as yielding nearly equal 
net returns, considering the investment in land, water, waiting for 
bearing and handling of the product. So far as the writer has 
observed, all our commercial fruits have reached maximum and mini- 
mum returns during the last quarter of a century which are practically 
identical. Therefore to plant good fruit in the best place for it, to 
handle the trees and products most intelligently, both in production 
and marketing, holds out substantially equal promise of profit. If it 
could be demonstrated that any particular fruit had the especial 
advantage over others in net returns, this advantage would imme- 
diately disappear because planters would rush to it and take away this 
advantage by undue increase of its acreage. Therefore the choice 
of fruits must remain an open question for each one to determine by 
his own experience and observation, at least to the extent of determin- 
ing his own line of production. 

It is one of the purposes of this treatise, as they will be disclosed in 
succeeding chapters, to impress upon the local planters the conviction 
that their clearest path toward satisfactory income lies in choosing 
varieties which have demonstrated two fundamental characters, viz. : 
adaptation to the locality and to the uses of the fruit trade — rather 
than in choosing novelties, no matter how alluring they may be. 

It may surprise the casual reader to find that our production 
proceeds so largely upon old standard varieties. Anyone, however, 
who is acquainted with commercial fruit growing knows that it is 
neither wise nor easy to revolutionize an established and profitable 
industry by the substitution of new varieties for the old standards. It 
takes several years to determine whether a new variety is really trust- 
worthy and suitable, and it takes much longer to get a large acreage 
in bearing either by grafting or new planting because people are slow 
and conservative in making changes. As the period of trial of each 
novelty passes, however, new varieties are accepted, if for any good 
reason found suitable, and become prominent as their merits justify. 

Another reason -why new varieties do not figure more largely 
in California fruit growing is the smallness of the amateur interest. 
191 



192 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

There is, in fact, almost an absence of pure amateurs — enthusiastic 
critical, discriminating, athirst for novelties. Even suburban planters 
follow the lead of commercial orchardists and plant chiefly that which 
has shown adaptations to local growing conditions, and few are averse 
to making what they can by sale of small surpluses. The result is 
that California fruit growing is almost wholly commercial in spirit, 
policy and point of view, which is perhaps only natural in a state 
where the fruit products reach an annual aggregate value of something 
like one hundred millions of dollars. The effect is to concentrate 
attention upon varieties which have achieved fame for profit, and to 
repress amateur devotion and indulgencies. 

At the same time there is, and has always been, quite a disposi- 
tion toward trial of novelties among commercial growers, especially 
manifested in search of specific characters which are seen to be desir- 
able rather than desire for newness for its own sake, which is often 
a point of pride among amateurs. To this enterprising and discrimin- 
ating search is due the prominence of some of the leading varieties, 
which are chance seedlings recognized as meeting special requirements 
and having grown great because they really did so. The California 
grower is, therefore, quite certain that he needs not varieties new 
throughout and of startling characters, but improved varieties which 
hold the good points of the old and add other points. For instance, 
he calls for trees resistant to disease, for improvement of the fruit in 
beauty, flavor and keeping qualities ; for varieties, similar in kind, 
which fill gaps in the ripening season so that he can employ help 
continuously, and shippers and canners agree with him so that they 
can keep the cars moving and the cannery plants at work. The 
grower says he must be careful not to plant something different from 
what is already growing and selling well in his region, and this is 
also the advice of the trade to him. He can not risk much on varieties 
of entirely different types, although most growers are always doing a 
little experimenting. Nor should he undertake too many varieties, 
because a profitable orchard is not a pomological museum. There 
must be a large quantity of uniform fruit to make any district commer- 
cially prominent. 

For these reasons the number of varieties now planted is but a 
fraction of what it was a third of a century ago, and, stopping at this 
point, one might get the idea of the California grower was a monu- 
ment of conservatism and lacking in enterprise and adventure. Subse- 
quent chapters will, however, show that he has very definite ideas of 
the suitability and desirability of the varieties which he chooses for 
planting. 

It should therefore be noted by the reader that the preference for 
certain varieties, which is embodied in this statement, does not involve 
pomological standards as a leading factor. The claim is distinctly not 
made that these varieties are chosen exclusively on the basis of quality, 
beauty, hardiness or health. In the case of nearly all the fruits, there 
are other varieties which might equal or even surpass them in one or 
more of these respects. The choice is made because they are most 
profitable to grow ; not alone because they are good, but because they 



California's most popular varieties 193 

are good for something. This particular suitability or serviceability 
may involve pomological considerations and commercial and manu- 
facturing considerations as well. The planter must use these lists in 
connection with what he may find about the varieties in subsequent 
chapters, without neglecting to confer also with older growers in the 
district in which he may plan to plant. 

Perhaps an intelligent use of the statement can be concretely sug- 
gested by briefly discussing the first group of varieties mentioned — the 
apples most approved in California. First comes the yellow Newton 
Pippin, and that means that most apples commercially grown are 
winter apples and this variety is, on the whole, the most profitable of 
them. But a planter in a hot interior valley should usually reject them, 
for all winter apples are apt to be unsatisfactory, and, if he plants 
apples at all, should choose early varieties, because they ripen early, 
thus escaping the highest heat and at the same time being ready for 
the early market. Similar comments might be made upon the varieties 
of other fruits. 

During the year 1914 the writer had the advantage of revising all 
his earlier data on varieties through association with Professor B. B. 
Pratt, J. E. Coit, F. T. Bioletti and R. E. Smith as a committee of the 
California Experiment Station to assist the Bureau of Plant Industry 
in a revision of the variety list of the American Pomological Society, 
and desires to gratefully acknowledge benefits from such association. 

The varieties grouped below are arranged not according to ripening 
season but in the order in which the greatest number of growers con- 
sider them worth planting: 

Apples, — Newtown Pippin, Bellflower, E. Spitzenberg, W. W. 
Pearmain, Gravenstein, Red Astracan, W. Astracan, R. I. Greening, 
Rome Beauty, Jonathan, Winesap, White Astracan, Delicious, Arkan- 
sas Black, Baldwin, Tompkins Co. King. 

Apricots. — Royal, Blenheim, Moorpark, Tilton, Hemskirk, 
Peach, Newcastle. 

Cherries. — Royal Ann, Black Tartarian, Bing, Black Republican, 
Lambert, Qiapman, Purple Guigne, May Duke, Centennial, Black 
Bigarreau. 

Peaches. — Muir, Elberta, Phillips, Lovell, Salway, Early Craw- 
ford, Tuskena, Foster, Late Crawford, Orange Cling, Susquehanna, 
Sellers, Lemon, St. Johns, Henrietta, Hales, Alexander, Heath. 
Triumph. 

Pears. — Bartlett, Winter Nelis, Easter, Du Comice, Glout 
Morceau, Hardy, Barry, Comet, Seckel, Winter Bartlett, Wilder. 

Plums. — Wickson, Burbank, Climax, Hungarian, Tragedy, 
Kelsey, Yellow Egg, Red June. Giant, Washington, Satsuma, Jeflfer- 
son, Grand Duke, Santa Rosa, Clyman, Formosa. 

Prunes. — French, Imperial, Sugar, Robe de Sergeant, Italian, 
German, Standard, Silver, Splendor. 

Raisin and Shipping Grapes. — Muscat, Tokay, Thompson, 
Emperor, Malaga, Cornichon. Black Prince, Sultana, I31ack Morocco, 
Sv.eet Water, Verdal, Gros Colman, Pierce. 



194 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

Figs. — White Adriatic, Lob Injir, (Smyrna), Mission, Brown 
Turkey, Purple Smyrna, Kassaba. 

Almonds. — Nonpareil, Drake, IXL. Ne Plus Ultra, Texas 
Prolific, Languedoc, Peerless. 

Walnut. — Franquette, Mayette, Concord, Eureka, Placentia, El 
Monte, Santa Barbara Softshell. 

Orange. — Washington Naval, Valencia, Mediterranean Sweet, 
Paper Rind St. Michael, Ruby Blood. 

Lemon. — Eureka, Lisbon, Villa franca. 

Pomelo. — Marsh. 

Olives. — Mission, Manzanillo, Sevillano, Ascolano, Nevadillo. 

Blackberries. — Mammoth, Lawton, Himalaya, Crandalls. 

Raspberries. — Cuthbert. 

Strawberries. — Dollar, Brandywine, Jessie, Arizona, Marshall, 
Melinda, Banner. 

Let it be understood that this compilation indicates the popularity 
of varieties in the State as a whole. It should not be taken as a guide 
to planting in any particular district, except for experimental purposes. 
Lists for localities should be made after careful studies of the chapters 
treating of the particular fruits chosen for planting. 



CHAPTER XVII 

THE APPLE 

During the last decade notable progress has been made in apple 
growing in California. The old idea that our conditions did not favor 
excellence in the apple has given away to full assurance that in wisely 
selected elevations and exposures the very highest points of size, 
beauty, flavor, keeping and shipping qualities are secured. Even before 
the wonderfully satisfactory test of both northern and southern Cali- 
fornia apples at the New Orleans World's Fair, it was clear that the 
right variety grown in the right place yields an apple in California 
than which a better can not be grown anywhere, and during the last 
five years California early apples have been in sharp request for ship- 
ment to all regions of the Northwest and British Columbia, and Cali- 
fornia winter apples have been sold at the highest prices east of the 
Rocky Mountains and in Europe. Shipments beyond State lines of 
above four thousand carloads in 1910 testify to these facts. 

Localities for Apples. — Speaking generally, it may be laid down 
that the great valleys of the interior are not well suited to the apple ; 
also, there are some situations which are much better than others. In 
the early regions of the Sacramento Valley and foothills, however, ex- 
cellent early apples are profitably produced. In the great valley and 
lower foothill region of the State, the late apple usually lacks character 
and keeping quality. On the great plains the tree is liable to sunburn, 
or sun blight, as it is called. Some varieties, because of the character 
of their foliage, are less liable to this injury than others, and it is 
possible that this evil may be finally overcome by the selection of 
varieties with blight-proof foliage, as will be mentioned later. In the 
great valley, however, on the rich river-bottom land of the Sacramento 
and the San Joaquin and its tributaries, the apple roots deeply, attains 
good size, bears good fruit, with fair keeping quality, while but a few 
miles away on the plains it is inferior. 

In the interior, adaptation to the apple lies at an elevation on the 
foothills on both the east and west rims of the great valley. Its limits 
are not well defined, but there are flourishing orchards at an elevation 
of about four thousand five hundred feet on the slopes of the Sierra 
Nevada Mountains, and from two thousand to three thousand five 
hundred feet is commonly regarded the best apple region of the moun- 
tains. The trees attain large size and bear heavily, and the fruit, of 
well-adapted varieties, is large, crisp, juicy and has exceptional keep- 
ing qualities. On the Tule River in Tulare County, at an elevation of 
4100 feet, eight-year-old Winesaps have borne 300 pounds. Yellow. 
Newtown Pippins 250 pounds, and White Winter Pcarmains 300 
pounds per tree. At such elevations, however, there is constant danger 
of spring frost injury. 

Along the coast the apple succeeds well from end to end of the 
State, and very close to the ocean excellent fruit is produced on good 

195 



196 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

soil. There is a certain advantage in elevation in the coast region as 
well as in the interior, but the advantage is not so marked nor is the 
required elevation so great. Coast valleys in the central and upper 
portion of the State, where the soil is suitable, produce most excellent 
apples, but even here the lower hillsides, with deep, well-drained soils, 
are, perhaps, preferable to the floors of the valley. Departing from 
immediate coast influences and approaching the interior, with its 
greater heat and aridity, the greater elevation becomes desirable. The 
apple, excepting the very early varieties, does not relish the forcing 
heat which brings such perfection to the peach, but to insure late ripen- 
ing and long keeping, with accompanying crispness, juiciness, and 
flavor, it must have atmospheric surroundings which favor slower de- 
velopment. 

Localities for apple growing in southern California are to be chosen 
with much the same rules as in the upper parts of the State. As ha? 
already been said, valleys in which coast conditions largely predominate 
produce good apples, on suitable soils, but away from the coast, proper 
elevations must be sought, and they should be above the so-called ther- 
mal or frostless belts. Good apples are grown on low lands near the 
coast in Los Angeles and Orange Counties. Sixty miles inland, in San 
Bernardino County, winter apples fail in the valleys, but are most 
excellent at a sufficient elevation upon the slopes of the surrounding 
mountains or in elevated valleys like the Yucaipe Valley above Red- 
lands, where a Rome Beauty of excellent quality was grown in 1903 
to a weight of twenty-seven ounces and a circumference of fifteen 
inches. In the elevated interior of San Diego County, as in the Julian 
and Smith Mountain districts, excellent apples are produced in large 
quantities and profitably carried long distances. 

Second and Third-Crop Apples. — There is a peculiar behavior 
of the apple tree, most noticeable when winter temperature is mildest, 
and that is blooming and fruiting out of season. In the case of early 
apples the second bloom may appear about the time the first fruit 
ripens and the third bloom when the second crop is half grown. Even 
such behavior may be followed by regular blooming the following 
spring. Second crops of apples are not of amount nor regularity 
enough to be of much economic importance, as the second crop of 
pears and grapes sometimes are. The third crop occasionally ripens. 
An instance is on record at Chino, San Bernardino County, where in 
1903 a tree ripened its first crop in June, and its last fruit was picked 
on Christmas day following. Such behavior, of course, indicates con- 
ditions ill suited to the apple. 

Exposures for the Apple. — The choice of exposure for an apple 
orchard may almost be inferred from what has been said about locali- 
ties. In regions with high summer temperature the apple will do best 
on cool, northerly slopes, and this exposure becomes doubly desirable 
when the location has high temperature with only moderate annual 
rainfall, or where the soil is not well adapted to the retention of mois- 
ture. With such prevailing conditions, the apple will be grateful for 
the cooler air and the greater moisture of the northerly slope. Where 
the temperature is moderately cool, and the rainfall adequate, the mat- 



SOILS FOR THE APPLE 197 

ter of exposure is of less account, and the grower can make the exist- 
ence of the best soil the test of location of his orchard. At elevations 
on the sides of high ranges where late cold storms are liable to rush 
down from higher snow fields, protection from the usual course of such 
storms, or from the course of cold winds generally, must be sought; 
and directly up the coast, especially in the northern part of the State, 
in certain places where the peach does not usually succeed even the 
apple needs protection, and the benefit of all heat available, and then a 
southerly or southeasterly exposure becomes desirable. The choice of 
exposure is thus seen to be largely a local question and to be deter- 
mined by a knowledge of local conditions. A newcomer in a region 
can best learn these conditions by conference with older residents, or 
by personal observation of older orchards. 

Soils for the Apple. — Experience with the apple in California 
confirms what has long been set forth as its choice of soils in older 
regions. If one avoids an extremely light, sandy soil on the one hand, 
and a very stiff clay or adobe on the other, he may plant apples on 
almost any soil which allows extension of the roots to a considerable 
depth without reaching standing water. The apple thrives in a moist 
soil, but it must be well drained, naturally or otherwise. A soil which 
may be called best for the apple is a deep, rich, moist, calcareous loam, 
but the tree will thrive on coarser materials. The subsoil, whatever its 
nature, must be sound and open to the passage of moisture. The most 
unfavorable condition for the tree is a subsoil of clay which holds water. 
There is some difference in varieties as to choice of soil. The Yellow 
Bellflower, for instance, will do well on a lighter soil than the Yellow 
Newtown Pippin. 

PROPAGATION OF THE APPLE 

The apple is chiefly propagated by root-grafting upon apple seed- 
ling roots either whole roots or root pieces. Budding is also practiced 
to a certain extent. For dwarf trees the Paradise stock is used. Re- 
peated trials with working the apple on the pear, chiefly by top graft- 
ing, have secured growth of limited life but without fruiting. 

The resistance of certain roots to the woolly aphis has been fully 
demonstrated by local experience in the use of the Northern Spy and 
Winter Majetin, chiefly the former. Seedlings of Northern Spy can 
not be relied upon as resistant to the woolly aphis. It is necessary to 
get a root actually grown from the Northern Spy wood. The best 
way to get a start is to buy some Northern Spy trees from some rep- 
utable nurseryman, specifying that they shall be Northern Spy root 
and top. With these resistant roots and wood growth for scions or 
cuttings can be grown. Resistant trees are made by root grafting the 
scion of the variety which it is desired to propagate upon a piece of 
Northern Spy root and then being careful that the scion does not send 
out roots of its own, but is wholly dependent upon the Northern Spy 
root. It is customary with nurserymen selling resistant trees to save 
the root pieces which" are removed in digging and packing for subse- 
quent propagation. It is also possible to get a resistant tree by start- 



198 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

ing from the cutting of a Northern Spy. To facilitate the rooting of 
these cuttings a small piece of any kind of apple root is put in by side 
graft near the bottom of the cutting. This acts as a starter, but the 
cutting will also make roots of itself. At the end of the first year then 
the cuttings are taken up, the piece of root used as a starter is cleanly 
cut away and the rooted cutting replanted ; henceforth it is dependent 
upon its own roots and is resistant. The variety desired is then grafted 
in a little way above the ground surface so that there will be no danger 
of its making its own roots. By either of these processes it is more 
troublesome and takes more time to produce a tree with a resistant 
root than in the ordinary way, and for that reason trees on resistant 
roots are sold at a higher price. This may be the reason why resistant 
trees are not yet largely used in this State. 

Other suggestions applicable to the growth of young apple trees 
are given in Chapters VIII and IX. 



DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE APPLE 

The apple is subject to various diseases and insect enemies which 
must be resolutely fought or they will render the trees unprofitable. 
Chief of these diseases are the "pear blight" and the apple scab, and 
the apple mildew. Of the insect enemies the codlin moth, the apple- 
leaf aphis, the various leaf-cutting caterpillars and several scale insects 
must be kept in check and the latest approved means of reducing these 
troubles will be described in detail in later chapters. 



PLANTING AND CARE OF THE APPLE ORCHARD 

The chapters on planting, and pruning contain suggestions to which 
the reader is referred. Care should be taken to obtain trees with clean, 
healthy roots, not knotted and scarred by woolly aphis. 

Distance in Planting. — The distance between the trees is of the 
highest importance. All the old apple orchards are overcrowded. 
More recently trees have been set at greater distances, and such plant- 
ing is now generally advised. There is some difference of opinion as to 
proper distance, but certainly twenty-five to thirty feet is near enough, 
and some of the best new orchards have been planted at forty feet, the 
ground being used for a time with other crops or planted with early 
bearing trees, for which the soil is suited, between them. 

Pruning the Apple. — The manner of shaping fruit trees described 
in the chapter on pruning succeeds admirably with the apple. Year- 
ling trees are usually planted, and they are regularly pruned until 
proper form is secured. 

Mr. C. H. Rodgers, during his life-time a leading apple grower of 
the Watsonville district, near the coast in central California, gave the 
following excellent outline of a simple and economical, yet successful, 
method for apple tree building under ordinary conditions : 



PRUNING THE APPLE TREE 199 

First Year : On planting cut the stem from 30 to 36 inches in 
height, with tlic terminal bud toward the southwest. In the spring, 
when growth begins, strip off all shoots from the ground up to about 
20 inches. Above this point let all growth remain during the summer. 
If for any cause during early summer a bud does not start where 
wanted, a short transverse cut through the bark just above the bud 
will cause it to develop into limb. 

Beginning of Second Year : Cut off all limbs except those selected 
to remain permanently. Two, three, four, and not more than five limbs 
should be allowed to remain, the number depending on their position. 
It should be the aim to distribute them evenly on all sides, and to give 
all possible space between limbs up and down the trunk. This latter 
precaution is to give room for expansion of limbs in after years. Cut 
back the limbs that are to remain, taking off from one-third to one-half 
of the previous season's growth. If the tree is of a spreading habit, 
and it is desired to have it grow erect, cut to inner buds. If desired 
to spread the top cut to outer buds. 

Beginning of Third Year : Allow two or three lateral limbs to 
remain on each of the main branches. Top the tree again, taking off 
from one-third to one-half the previous year's growth. Continue this 
method during the first four years, at which time the tree should begin 
to bear, and if surrounding conditions are favorable, it will prove 
strong, vigorous and capable of sustaining a heavy load of apples. The 
after treatment will consist mainly in keeping the top properly thinned. 

After coming into bearing there must be intelligent pruning accord- 
ing to the growth-habit of the variety. Some varieties, like the Yellow 
Bellflower, resent heavy pruning after coming into bearing, and slow 
growers like the Yellow Newtown Pippin, do not need it. On the other 
hand, varieties like the Winesap and Smith's Cider are apt to make 
long slim branches and bear at the ends. This can be corrected by 
cutting back to secure more short shoots which will bear better fruit. 
Some varieties, like the Jonathan, will make plenty of short spurs 
under this treatment, while others, like Rome Beauty and Rhode Island 
Greening, are persistent tip-bearers, but can be gradually drawn in 
without reducing the crop too much. The grower must study his 
varieties not only with reference to this but in forming the tree, cutting 
to an inside bud all varieties which naturally take a horizontal direction, 
and cutting to an outside bud varieties which have a tendency to send 
up tall, straight shoots. By thus throwing the new growth upward 
in the first case, and outward in the second, one can shape each kind 
to greater symmetry and strength for fruit carrying, and bring up all 
spreading varieties to a form which admits near approach of the plow 
and cultivator. This manner of shaping the tree must continue as long 
as seems necessary to secure a tree which will come to bearing age 
shapely and strong, and within reach. 

Bearing trees should not be allowed to carry too many branches, 
and pruning will largely consist of thinning out surplus shoots and 
removing interference between branches. It is not desirable to shorten 
in the apple as is done with the apricot and peach. 



200 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Summer pruning to reduce wood growth and promote bearing is 
practiced to a limited extent in some districts upon varieties inclined to 
shy bearing. In regions of the most intense summer heat, less pruning 
is admissible than in the coast and elevated regions. It is necessary 
that the foliage be dense to protect the tree and the fruit from sunburn. 
Nor does the tree seem to relish cutting back. Slight thinning out if 
the tree becomes too brushy, seems to be the best treatment in some of 
the hot valleys. 

Thinning the Fruit. — One of the most important items in the 
handling of an apple orchard is the faithful thinning out of the fruit 
of all varieties which are prone to over-bear, and this work is now 
regularly provided for by the leading commercial growers. Only one 
apple should grow at a place and spacing of four to six inches is com- 
mended. Although this work is tedious and expensive, it is profitable, 
because of the improved price which can be had for the larger fruit 
which will be secured, and it is desirable in the effects of thinning on 
the tree. It will be relieved from the exhaustion of overbearing, in- 
duced to yield annual crops, and often saved from breaking down with 
a too heavy burden. 

Cultivation and Irrigation. — All that has been urged in measures 
to secure adequate moisture supply has full force with the apple. Ex- 
cepting the early varieties, it is a fruit with a long growing season and 
therefore requires continuous moisture to secure size and quality. Most 
California apples are grown on deep, retentive soils in regions of large 
rainfall and if this is conserved by thorough cultivation, good fruit can 
be secured. It is doubtless true, however, that apples in California 
would sometimes be improved by irrigation just as they are in interior 
and mountain districts. 

Fertilizers have been thus far but little used in California apple 
orchards but they are manifestly needed. 

There has arisen recently evidence of the unfinished character of 
the fruit in some districts because it has shown blemishes after picking 
and during shipment which can not be attributed to any parasitic en- 
croachment. This is probably due to some unfavorable condition in the 
local climate or to some other stress upon the tree which prevents it 
from doing perfect work. 

GATHERING AND STORING APPLES 

The disposition in this State, as elsewhere, is to allow the fruit to 
hang too long upon the tree before gathering. It was long ago dem- 
onstrated that an apple for long-keeping must be picked a little in ad- 
vance of full maturity. As late fall weather in California is so delight- 
ful, there is more temptation to delay the picking than where the 
approach of winter admonishes the grower to get his fruit under cover. 
Picking apples for shipment should be done just when the seeds begin 
to blacken and when the fruit yields to pressure. If left on until fully 
ripe, and the seeds all black, the fruit is apt not to keep well. This rule 
applies to fall apples for shipment to distant markets, or for apples to 
be stored at home. 




o 
o 

< 

I 



PICKING AND STORING OF APPLES 201 

Mr. H. G. Keesling of Edenvale, Santa Clara County, gives a 
sketch of his way of handling apples on a small scale : In picking 
apples we insist on just as careful handling as in picking other fruits, 
and we find that the picking pail made of tin or light galvanized 
iron, holding about twelve quarts, or nearly twenty pounds of apples, 
is the best vessel to pick in, and we use them right through the season 
for cherries, apricots, peaches and even prunes. A pail of this size is 
not too heavy to handle even on high ladders, and it carries the fruit 
without bruising. Our plan is to pick and sort into boxes in the 
orchard. If a number of pickers are at work, then one or more men 
will do the sorting. As each picker fills his pail, he carries it a short 
distance to the sorting station, taking an empty one and returning to 
his work. The apples are sorted out of the pails and very carefully 
examined. The perfect apples go into one box, second into another 
and culls into another. They are then loaded onto a truck or wagon 
with springs and hauled to the house. A good sorter will keep pails 
empty for several pickers, all of course depending on the crop, size of 
apples, etc. I put my winter apples in redwood boxes, which, when 
piled one on top of another, five or six high and close together and 
covered with canvas or muslin, are in a condition to keep their flavor 
and juiciness a long time. Storing apples in boxes saves a lot of work 
in handling if they are to be examined or sorted during the winter. 

Nearly all the ways of keeping winter apples have been tried in 
California. The main difficulty in keeping apples in good condition 
during the dry months of the autumn is the loss of moisture from the 
fruit by evaporation. This causes shriveling and operates against long 
keeping. It has been found by experience that apples keep perfectly 
until late in the spring by piling under the trees and covering with 
leaves, etc., allowing the rains to fall upon them. When dry north 
winds blow, the fruit should be sprinkled occasionally. They come out 
from the cover fresh, smooth, and plump, and for family use such 
rough storage will often answer a good purpose. For commercial stor- 
age, even on a small scale, however, good fruithouses are used. The 
requisites of such houses are an evenly cool temperature, moist air, and 
good ventilation, the fruit being open to free access of the air. In the 
mountains where stone is abundant excellent apple houses are made of 
it, which resist temperature changes notably. 

Mr. Edward Berwick, of Monterey, apple grower of experience in 
the coast region, handles his fruit in this way: 

The apples are carefully handpicked into baskets and at once transferred to 
ordinary apple boxes — just put in loose, not packed tight as for shipping. These 
boxes are hauled to the frUit houses with as little jar as possible. 

This fruit house is built of rough boards (fastened on a heavy frame) with 
inch-thick battens covering the cracks, and rustic-nailed outside the battens, thus 
leaving an inch air-space between the boards and the rustic. It is of two stories — 
the upper devoted to tools and stores, the lower used for fruit, and arranged 
with shelves accordingly. This lower story has only an earthen floor. One object 
of this is to give no lodgment for rats or mice, the other is to serve as a 
means of maintaining a cool, damp atmosphere. To this end it is kept well 
watered in apple-keeping season; and, to avoid mildew or mold, it is also liberally 
sprinkled with ground sulphur. By day, doors and windows are mostly kept shut, 
by night open; this, of course, is to exclude the heat and allow free circulation 
of the cool night air. 



202 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

A rather more open house is used in the coast region of southern 
CaHfornia, by Mr, T. W. Ward, of Carpinteria : 

It is a slat house made of strips 1 x 2^ inches, put on one inch apart. The 
roof is similarly constructed. There are two passages, on either side of which 
are two shelves, one above the other, i. e., eight in all. The shelves are made of 
slats placed one-half inch apart, with sides a foot high. The apples are spread 
on these shelves a foot or more deep. The floor is made of slats, and there are 
bins on this also. The first must receive a thorough sprinkling weekly, unless 
sufficient rain falls. The slats are close enough to prevent birds doing damage, 
and the whole building is raised six inches from the ground. 

In the monutain regions arrangements must be made for frost 
exckision — a consideration which does not apply to the valley and 
coast. 

PICKING AND PACKING APPLES ON A LARGE SCALE 

Mr. C. H. Rodgers, whose pruning prescription has just been cited, 
gives the best methods of handling apples for market as follows : 

In the matter of picking, experience has evolved a number of rules which 
should be strictly adhered to : 

(1) Do not pull the apple off the tree. By so doing, the stem may be 
detached from the apple, thus making a second grade of what otherwise would 
be choice. 

The proper method of plucking the apple is to grasp it with the full hand, not 
with the fingers only, and by a gentle twist and lateral movement detach it with 
the stem attached. Especially must finger pressure be avoided in the picking, as 
bruises thereby produced injure the value. 

(2) The apple must never be dropped into a receptacle or from box to box, 
but should be transferred as carefully as so many eggs. 

(3) Under all circumstances use vehicles having springs in moving the fruit. 
Once within the packing-house the more perishable varieties should be handled 

immediately and forwarded to market, while the long-keeping varieties, especially 
those intended for export, should be held at least a month before sorting and 
packing. This latter precaution enables the packer to discover and eliminate all 
diseased and defective fruit — a thing that would be impossible if the fruit were 
packed at an early date after picking. 

Three grades or qualities are recognized in the "trade" — first, second and third. 
First grade includes only perfect fruit. Second grade includes the fruit having 
a trivial surface blemish or stem absent. The third or cull class includes all 
wormy, badly bruised or skin-broken apples. 

Though grading for size varies somewhat in different localities, in the Wat- 
sonville district, the leading apple producing center of the West, there are but 
three sizes recognized. These are 3^, 4, and 4^/2 tier. The unit of size is the 
4-tier, which comprises all apples running from 25^ to 3^ inches in diameter, 
and derives the name from the fact that when packed in the box there are four 
rows of four apples each, both vertically and horizontally across the end of the 
box. Apples in excess of 3^ inches are classed as 3]/2-tier size. The third size, 
or 4j4-tier, includes those apples ranging between 2^4 and 2^ inches in diame- 
ter. Both the 3^-tire and 4y/^-tier are packed in the manner known as "diamond" 
pack or "pear" pack. Apples smaller than 4^-tier are thrown into the cull pile. 
The sorter ascertains the size by passing the apples through circular holes in a 
board. 

In this state the standard box is made of pine. Its measurements are 9^ by 
11 by 22 inches, and it holds about 50 pounds of fruit. A modified box of extra 
thick material, reinforced by iron straps, is frequently used for export trade. 
Redwood boxes are used only for cheap grades of apples packed for the local 
market. 

After being sorted, the apples are passed to the packer, who. before placing 
them in the box, wraps each apple in a piece of paper prepared for the purpose. 



1 



LEADING VARIETIES OF APPLES 203 

The apples must be so packed in the box as to permit the nailinj? firmly of 
the lid at each end, and at the same time allow a gradual swell of about three- 
fourths of an inch at the middle of both top and bottom. On account of the 
resultant shape of the boxes, they can be stacked up with safety only on their 
sides. 

The packed boxes after being neatly labeled, are next transferred to the cars 
and stacked four or five tiers high. An air space of three or four feet is leit 
between the top tier and the roof of the car, also the entire space between the 
doors is left vacant for the better circulation of air. The boxes, after being 
systematically placed in the car are so braced with timbers as to prevent any 
movement. The usual carload consists of about 650 boxes. Refrigerator fruit 
cars are employed mainly for apple shipment, but no ice is used. 

Summer and Fall Apples. — In some regions noted for early 
maturing of fruit, it is profitable to grow early apples, providing there 
are facilities for reaching profitable avenues of trade. Except to minis- 
ter to some special local or distant trade which can be thus foreseen, 
it must be said that very early apples are hardly worth the attention of 
the commercial planter. These sorts are apt to come into direct contest 
with the magnificent peaches, grapes and other summer and autumn 
fruits, and suflfer thereby. 

On the other hand the fall apples, chiefly the Yellow Bellflower 
and Gravenstein, are so good and profitable in regions where they bear 
well that they are among the varieties which constitute our chief com- 
mercial reliance. Bellflowers are also encroaching on the field of win- 
ter apples because they come out so well from cold storage. 

Winter Apples. — For large ventures in apple growing, in local- 
ities carefully chosen for especial adaptations, a few of the finest 
varieties of winter apples should generally be selected. It is the judg- 
ment of the most experienced apple growers, many of whom have old 
orchards including many varieties, that new plantations of winter 
apples should contain only about six sorts. Of these, in all parts of the 
State, two would be the Yellow Newtown Pippin and White Winter 
Pearmain; the other four would vary in different parts of the State, as 
can be learned from the table which will follow. 

Apples for Long Shipment. — There has been for years quite an 
important trade in shipment of California apples to various ports in 
the South Pacific Ocean, and recently there has been a sharp demand 
for California apples for shipment to the eastern states and England. 
The characteristic size, quality and keeping of the fruit, together with 
the size and style of package, have strongly commended the fruit. The 
center of this trade is Watsonville, in a coast valley, in the central part 
of the State. The two apples which are most popular are the Yellow 
Rellflower and the Yellow Newtown Pippin. It is an interesting fact 
that these varieties by virtue of quality have overcome the popular 
fervor for a red apple, though at Watsonville some Red Pearmains are 
grown to fill orders which insist on having some color. 

For the Interior Valleys. — In choosing varieties for the hot val- 
leys of the State those making a heavy leaf growth are to be preferred. 
The Spitzenberg, for; example, is a failure in the valleys of the interior, 
though satisfactory at points on the valley borders. From experience 
already had it seems likely that some of the Russian varieties, with 



204 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

thick, large leaves, will prove best for such situations. The behavior 
of the Astracans, the Duchess of Oldenburg, and others of Russian 
origin, are illustrations of this fact. Other varieties have been on trial 
for several years, but no great distribution of them has yet been at- 
tained. 

SELECTION OF VARIETIES FOR CROSS-POLLINATION 

Association for cross-pollination can be arranged with a number of 
our most popular varieties by consulting the following dates of bloom- 
ing as prepared by Mr. Frederick Maskew based upon observations in 
the coast region of Los Angeles County. 

Blooming Season of a Group of Popular Varieties. 

General 
Varieties. First bloom. Full bloom. fall of bloom. 

White Winter Pearmain April 11 April 27 May 5 

Red Astracan April 17 April 30 May 12 

Bellflower April 20 April 30 May 16 

Fall Pippin April 20 May 5 May IS 

Rhode Island Greening April 20 May 5 May 15 

Kentucky Red Streak April 20 May 10 May 20 

Early Harvest April 21 May 6 May 12 

Shockly April 27 May 15 May 20 

Fameuse April 27 May 15 May 22 

Ben Davis April 29 May 15 May 23 

Winesap May 5 May 17 June 1 

Yellow Transparent May 5 May 16 June 1 

None-such May 7 May 16 June 1 

Missouri Pippin May 10 May 20 June 1 

Alexander May IS May 25 June 1 

Smiths Cider May IS May 25 June 6 

Transcendent Crab Mar. 30 April 7 April 22 

Hyslop Crab April 11 April 22 April 30 

Montreal Crab April 16 April 24 May 7 

This is a later range of bloom than will be found in many parts of 
the State, but the same relation may be expected everywhere. 



VARIETIES OF APPLES CHIEFLY GROWN IN 
CALIFORNIA 

Of the hundreds of varieties tested in California comparatively few 
are now grown, as has already been suggested. Those named below 
have been reported by growers as succeeding in localities named with 
the description, or indicated in the table which will follow. The ar- 
rangement is, approximately, in the order of ripening. 

Carolina Red June (Southern). — Medium size oval, irregular, inclined to 
conic; deep red covered with light bloom; slack in small cavity; calyx closed; 
flesh white, tender, juicy, subacid; core rather large. 

Early Harvest (American). — Medium size, roundish; straw color with few 
faint white dots ; stalk half to three-fourths inch, slender, set in moderate cavity ; 
calyx in shallow basin; flesh very white, tender, crisp, pleasant. 



DESCRIPTIONS OF POPULAR APPLES 205 

ff,/'"''^' {""'^"^"''-y, (Ne^v York). -Medium size, roundish, narrowing toward 
the eye; sk,n smooth, deep red on yellow ground; stalk one and a haff inches 
whir/ffn'^.'H'' ^lu 'T"'"' '" deep cavity; calyx small, in shallow ban flesh 
white, tmged with red next to the skin, tender, subacid, sprightly. 

Red fstracan (Russian). -Large roundish; skin deep red, save greenish yel- 
low m the shade; pale white bloom; stalk short, and deeply insfrtej caWx 
partially closed and set in slight basin; flesh white, juicy and crisp peasant acid 
fo?a^;l';iy"appT''°"'' '"' '" ''''' '^^^"- ^^' "^^"^ relian'ce'in California 

n7n/r.-/.y/ra<:a« (Russian).— Large, roundish; skin smooth and nearly white 
with faint streaks of red, and covered with white bloom; flesh white Conrider- 
ably grown in the Sacramento Valley and foothills for early shipment Sorne- 
^):^ Vjef' '' '' °"""^- ^^""^- - ^'^ Modesto TtrJct o'fTh\ 

Duchess of Oldenburg (Russian). -Large, roundish, oblate; yellow, streaked 
subaVd ^^^' "^""^^ ^^°'''^' '^* '" ^''^^' ^^'" ^°^^°^^' fl"h juicy, 

Gravenstein (German) -Large, rather flattened; a little one-sided or angular- 
broadest at base; stalk short, strong, deeply set; calyx large, closed, in a large 
basin; skm yellow freely marked with light and deep red and orange; flefh 
r^P '; ".''^A '^'ghly flavored, aromatic; a strong-growing and heavily-bearing 
tree; a standard fall apple m this State. * 

Red Bietigheiwer (German).— Large to very large, oblate, slightly conical 
regu ar smooth, whiti.sh or yellowish white, shaded with light and dark red and 
purplish crimson in the sun; stalk short, rather stout, calyx closed in large 
deep, slightly corrugated basin; flesh white, firm, juicy, brisk subacid. Declining 
in lavor. ° 

Maiden's blush (New Jersey).— Rather large, smooth, regular; yellow, with 
evenly shaded red cheek; stalk short, in rather wide, deep hollow; calyx closed in 
moderate depression; flesh white, tender, sprightly. 

Fall Pippin.— Yery large, roundish, a little flattened; stalk three-fourths inch 
projecting considerably beyond the fruit (which distinguishes it from the Holland 
Pippin) ; calyx open, not very large, rather deeply sunk in round, narrow ba^in- 
skin smooh, yellowish green, becoming pure yellow; brownish blush and few 
scattered dots; flesh white, tender, mellow, rich, aromatic. 

^/r.ra«yfr (Russian). -Very large, showy, conical, greenish yellow, streaked 
with red in shade, bright red in sun; calyx large, in deep basin; stalk slender 
long, m deep cavity; flesh yellowish white, crisp, tender, and juicy. Three vigor- 
ous, but not always a good bearer. ^ 

Gloria Mundi.— Very large, roundish, oblate ; ribbed ; greenish yellow A 
popular show apple on account of great size attained in this State. (See table.) 

Fameuse: syn. Snow Apple (Canada).— Medium size, roundish, somewhat 
Hattened ; deep crimson, nearly concealing pale yellowish ground ; flesh snowy 
white tender, juicy, slight perfume; stalk slender, one-half inch, in narrow 
tunnel-shaped cavity ; calyx small, in shallow, rather narrow basin ; "tree vigor- 
pus with dark wood; one of the finest desert fruits; succeeds particularly Well 
in the foothills. — John Bidwell. 

King of Tompkins Co««/.v.— Large, globular, angular, inclining to conic- yel- 
lowish, mostly shaded with red. striped and splashed with crimson ; stalk short 
and stout, in large, somewhat irregular cavity; calyx small, closed; flesh yellow- 
isti, rich, juicy, vinous, aromatic; chiefly grown in mountain regions. 

i?aw&o (Pennsylvania).— Medium to large, flat; yellowish white with pale 
yellow and red in the sun. with large, rough dots; stalk long, rather slender, 
curved, deeply set; calyx closed, in broad basin; flesh greenish white. Reported 
a tailure in some counties. 

^.Urf'' P''^^'-^— Large roundish, sides often unequal ; light red and deep red on 
yellowish ground; stalk medium, rather slender, in deep, narrow cavity; calyx 



206 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

partiallv open. Commended as a market apple by the Southern California 
Nurserymen's Association. Grown in the upper Sacramento Valley; sometimes 
keeps until July 1. 

Baldmin (Massachusetts). — Large, roundish, narrowing a little toward the 
eye ; deep bright red over a yellow ground ; a few russet dots ; calyx closed and 
set in narrow basin ; stalk one-half to three-fourths inch, rather slender, set in 
deep, even cavity; flesh yellowish-white, crisp, juicy, subacid. Best in northern 
and elevated regions ; coloring varies greatly according to locality. 

Hoover (South Carolina). — Large, roundish, slightly oblique; yellowish, 
mostly overspread with red, with conspicuous light dots ; stalk rather long, in 
large cavity; calyx open in furrowed basin; flesh yellowish, juicy, crisp, acid. 

Rhode Island Greening. — Large, roundish, a little flattened, pretty regular ; 
dark green, becoming yellowish green ; calyx small, woolly, closed, in shallow 
basin ; stalk three- fourths inch, curved, thickest at the bottom ; flesh yellow, 
fine grained; tender, crisp, juicy, aromatic, slightly acid; tree healthy and the 
variety widely popular. 

Vandevere; syn. Newton Spitzcnburg. — Medium size, oblate, slightly conic; 
fine yellow, washed with light red, striped and splashed with dark red and 
shaded with carmine in the sun ; light bloom and peculiar gray specks ; stalk 
short, in wide cavity; calyx small; flesh yellow, rich, sprightly, vinous. 

Jonathan (New York). — Medium to large, roundish, conical or tapering to 
the eye ; light yellow, nearly covered with red stripes and deep red in the suri ; 
stalk three-fourths of an inch, rather slender, in deep, regular cavity; calyxin 
deep, broad basin; tender, juicy, rich, vinous; a great favorite in California; 
specially commended as a market apple by Southern California Nurserymen's 
Association ; keeps till midwinter. 

Winesap. — Medium size, roundish oblong ; dark red with traces of yellow in 
the shade; stalk nearly an inch, slender, set in an irregular cavity; calyx small, 
in regular basin; flesh yellow, crisp, high, rich flavor; largely grown; tree a 
good bearer. 

Stayman Winesap. — An old improvement on the Winesap now becoming 
more prominent. Some growers reporting favorablly on Winesap have this 
variety, which is larger and better, and the tree a stronger grower and more 
productive. Approved by Mr. Frank Femmons, of Madera county. 

Ortley; syn. White BeMower, etc. (New Jersey). — Large, oblong, greenish 
yellow, becoming fine yellow with slight blush ; stalk medium, slender, set in 
deep, acute cavity; calyx closed, set in abrupt corrugated basin; flesh white, fine- 
grained, juicy, subacid. 

Szvaar (New York). — Large, roundish; golden yellow with numerous brown 
specks ; stalk slender, three-fourths inch, in very round cavity ; calyx small, 
greenish, set in shallow basin ; flesh yellowish, fine-grained ; very rich, aromatic 
flavor and spicy smell. 

Lazwer. — Large, roundish, oblate, dark red, covered with small dots ; stalk 
medium, cavity deep, regular; calyx small, closed in medium furrowed basin; 
flesh white, sprightly, aromatic ; a promising, late keeping variety. 

Yellow BellHower (New Jersey). — Very large, oblong, irregular, tapering 
toward the eye ; smooth ; lemon color, with blush ; stalk long and slender, in deep 
cavity; calyx closed, in rather narrow basin; flesh tender, juicy, crisp, with 
sprightly subacid flavor; keeps well into the winter; tree a strong grower and 
healthy; one of the universal favorites of California. 

Romatiite. — Small to medium, roundish, conical, truncated ; yellow, mostly 
covered with clear, handsome red ; indistinct light dots ; stalk slender ; calyx in 
an abrupt basin; flesh yellowish, fine-grained, juicy, pleasant, subacid. 

Esopiis Spitzenhurg (New York). — Large, oblong, tapering roundly to the 
eye ; smooth, nearly covered with rich, lively red, dotted with distinct yellowish 
russet dots; on shaded side, yellowish ground with streaks and broken stripes 



DESCRIPTIONS OF POPULAR APPLES 207 

of red; stalk rather long, three-fourths inch, slender, projecting beyond the base 
and inserted in wide cavity; calyx small and closed, in shallow basin; flesh yel- 
low, rather firm, crisp, juicy, with a delicious rich, brisk flavor. A largely 
grown variety; tree a good, upright grower and healthy; fruit keeps fairly. 

Hyde King.— Very large, glistening golden yellow with blush, very hand- 
some. Ripens October 15th in Humboldt county. Approved by A. F. Etter. 

Siitith's Cider (Pennsylvania).— Large, roundish, oblate conic; yellow, shaded 
and striped with red, sparsely covered with gray dots; stalk slender, in deep, 
rather narrow cavity; calyx closed, in broad, shallow basin; flesh whitish, juicy, 
crisp, acid; tree a strong grower, and fruit keeps till midwinter. 

Rome Beauty (Ohio).— Large, roundish, approaching conic; yellow, shaded 
and striped with bright red, sprinkled with light dots; stalk one inch, in large, 
deep cavity; calyx partially closed, in deep, narrow basin; flesh yellowish, juicy! 
sprightly; fruit keeps late. Particularly tine in the mountain valleys of Southern 
California. 

Missouri Pippin (Missouri).— Large, roundish oblate, slightly oblique, some- 
what flattened at the ends; shaded, striped and splashed with light and dark red, 
often quite dark in the sun; many large and small gray dots; stalk short, small; 
cavity large, deep; calyx closed or half open, basin rather abrupt deep, 'slightly 
corrugated; flesh whitish, rather coarse, moderately juicy, subacid. Quite largely 
planted, but losing favor for lack of keeping quality in coast valleys. 

Nickajack (North Carolina).— Large, roundish to roundish oblate, slightly 
conic, sometimes oblique; yellowish, freely striped and splashed with red, many 
large dots; stalk short, in large cavity; calyx partly open; flesh yellowish, fair 
quality ; reported a shy bearer in high altitudes. 

Northern Spy (New York). — Large, roundish, oblate, conical; pale yellow, 
purplish red stripes in the sun ; stalk three-fourths inch, slender, in wide, deep 
cavity; calyx small, closed; flesh white, mild, pleasant; highly esteemed in a few 
localities, but abandoned in others for shy bearing. 

White Winter Peurmain.— Large, roundish, oblong conic, somewhat oblique; 
pale yellow with slight blush, many mmute brown dots; stalk short in deep' 
cavity; calyx nearly closed; tlesh yellowish, tender, crisp, juicy, very pleasant 
subacid, extra high flavor; grown everywhere and fruit keeps late; tree a strong 
grower and healthy. Greatly advantaged by cross-pollination. 

Lady (French).— Small, regularly formed, flat; smooth and glossy, with bril- 
liant red cheek contrasting with lemon yellow ground; flesh white, crisp, juicy 
and pleasant; chiefly used for ornamental purposes. 

Black Ben £>ariJ.— Resembles Ben Davis in tree and fruit, except that the 
latter is deeper colored, more symmetrical and of better quality. Highly praised 
by Mr. Frank Femmons, Madera county. 

Delicious. — Resembling Bellflower; yellow; almost covered with dark red; 
very mild acid, quality good; a late keeper. Strongly approved in elevated dis- 
tricts. 

Arkansas Beauty (Arkansas). — Medium to large, oblong conical, yellow and 
red stripes; fine, juicy, very good, subacid. Approved in Southern California. 

Rawles Janet (Virginia). — Medium to large, oblate conic, yellowish, shaded 
with red and striped with crimson; stalk short and thick, in broad, open cavity; 
calyx partially open, in shallow basin; flesh yellow, tender, juicy, pleasant vinous 
flavor; tree healthy and prolific. 

Stark. — Large, roundish, inclined to conic ; sometimes elongated, sometimes 
oblique; greenish yellow, nearly covered with dark red or sprinkled with light 
and brown dots; stalk short, rather stout; calyx closed; flesh yellowish. 

Yellow NezL'tozcn Pippin. — Large, roundish, oblate and oblaque, more or less 
flattened yellow with brownish red cheek; stalk very short; flesh firm, crisp, juicy, 
and with very rich, higfi flavor. Generally considered the best winter apple in 
California. 



208 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

CRAB APPLES 

Hyslop. — Fruit large, growing in clusters ; roundish ovate ; dark rich red. 
covered with thick blue bloom ; stalk long, slender ; calyx closed ; flesh yellowish. 

Large Red Siberian. — Roundish ovate with large and prominent calyx; pale 
red and yellow skin. 

Large Yellow Siberian. — Fruit similar in size to foregoing, roundish oval, 
flattened at base and crown ; light clear yellow, inclining to amber, with warm 
cheek. 

Trans cendant. — Medium to large, roundish oval, flattened at the ends, slightly 
but regularly ribbed ; golden yellow, with rich, crimson cheek, or nearly covered 
vnth. red; delicate white bloom; stalk long and slender, in open, deep cavity; 
calyx closed ; flesh creamy yellow. 

Montreal Beauty. — Large, roundish, oblate ; bright yellow, mostly covered and 
shaded with red ; one of the most beautiful of crab apples. 

Whitney's Crab. — Large, handsome, greenish yellow, striped with crimson. 



CALIFORNIA SEEDLING APPLES 

Skinner's Seedling (name approved by Cahfornia State Horticultural Society, 
November, 1887) ; syn. Skinner's Pippin, Santa Clara' King. — Originated with 
Judge H. C Skinner, of San Jose. Fruit large to very large ; form oblate, conic, 
slightly mixed ; color rich lemon yellow, faintly striped with bright red ; flesh 
yellowish white, very tender, juicy, sprightly, mild subacid; quality best. Season, 
September and October. 

Marshall's Red. — Originated with J. L. Marshall, Brown's Valley, near Napa. 
Fruited first about 1877; introduced by Leonard Coates in 1884; no longer 
propagated. 

Magoon. — Large, roundish oblong, deep red shading to light red on yellow 
ground, resembling Esopus Spitzenburg in form, flesh and flavor. Found in 1893 
on place formerly occupied by S. E. Magoon, near Ahwahnee. Named by Frank 
Femmons. 

Cook's Seedling; syn. Sonoma Seedling. — Brought to notice by O. B. Shaw, 
of Sonoma, as a seedling raised by David Cook from the seed of the Juneating. 
Above medium size, pale yellow striped with red; sharp acid flavor. Chiefly 
grown in Sonoma and Napa counties. 

Lazvton. — Seedling on place of Mrs. F. H. Lawton, one-half mile north of 
Sebastopol, Sonoma county. More symmetrical than Belmont or Waxen. Very 
promising show variety. 

Tabular Showing of Adaptations. — An attempt is made to dis- 
trict the State for the apple, and for the other fruits which follow, in 
accordance with the scheme of climatic conditions described in Chapter 
I, This groups regions of nearest resemblance, and is more rational 
than any prescription according to county lines can be, for though 
some counties lie wholly in one climatic division, many more counties 
extend through two, and some even through three, such divisions. It 
is, therefore, a more promising proposition to encourage planters in 
any locality to study their climatic adaptations, not with regard to 
county lines but rather as related to the conditions of elevation, ex- 
posure to ocean influences and other factors which characterize natural 
loelts, or areas, of similar horticultural fitness. 



TABULATED STATEMENT 



209 



Apple Varieties Approved by California Growers. 



Northern 
VARIETIES. Coast 

Region. 

Alexander 

Arkansas Beauty 

Arkansas Black * 

Baldwin ** 

Ben Davis * 

Bietigheinier * 

Black Ben Davis 

Cook's Seedling 

Delicious 

Early Harvest * 

Early Strawberry 

Esopus Spitzcnburg ** 

Fall Pippin 

Fameuse ** 

Gravenstein ** 

Gloria Mundi 

Hoover 

Hyde King * 

Jonathan * 

Langford 

Lawver * 

Maiden's Blush 

Marshall's Red 

Missouri Pippin * 

Nickajack 

Northern Spy 

Oldenburg Duchess * 

Ortley 

Rawles's Janet 

Red Astracan * 

Red June * 

Red Pearmain 

Rhode Island Greening ** 

Romanite 

Rome Beauty * 

Smith's Cider * 

Skinner's Seedling 

Stark * 

Stayman Winesap 

Tompkins King ** 

Vandevere 

Wagener ** 

Wealthy * 

White Astracan 

White Winter Pearmain... * 

Winesap * 

Winter Banana 

Yellow Belltlower ** 

Yellow Newton Pippin ♦* 

Yellow Transparent * 

York Imperial * 

•Indicates that the variety is approved 
••Most highly commended. 



Central 
Coast 
Region. 



* 



Interior 

valleys 

and 

foothills. 






** 



Mountain 
valleys 

and 
plateau. 



Southern 

California 

Coast. 



♦ 



>t>4t 



* 


* 


** 




• . 


♦ 




* 


** 






* 




* 


* 




* 


** 






♦* 


** 


* 


♦* 


** 


** 




** 


* 


** 


* 


* 


* 


** 


** 


♦ * 


** 


** 


** 


>«<>•< 


* 


* 


* 


* 



in the region resignated. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

THE APRICOT 

California has nearly three million apricot trees which stand in the 
open air without protection of any kind and bear large, luscious fruit. 
That apricot trees can do this constitutes one of the unique features 
of California fruit growing and proclaims it different from fruit grow- 
ing in other States, for, excepting a few localities in other parts of the 
Pacific slope, California has a monopoly of commercial apricot grow- 
ing, and nowhere else in the world does the fruit attain such commercial 
importance. Although the apricot has been grown here from the 
earliest days of the American occupation, and though since the opening 
of the export trade in canned and dried fruits, the apricot has gained 
in popularity, the planting of apricot orchards has not proceeded re- 
cently with great rapidity, although indications are that our distant 
patrons are only just beginning to recognize the desirability of the 
fruit, and their demands will make it well-nigh impossible for us to ex- 
tend our production beyond profitable limits. The reason by the apri- 
cot has not kept pace with the advance of some other fruits in Cali- 
fornia is to be found in certain limitations of suitable area which will 
be mentioned presently. 

Though the apricot has some pests and diseases to contend with, 
they have thus far proved slight evils, and the tree is generally regarded 
as one of the healthiest and most vigorous, as it certainly is one of our 
most beautiful orchard trees. It is long-lived and attains great size 
There are here and there groups of trees nearly half a century old 
which have a height of fifty feet ; the main trunks like forest oaks, and 
the first branches or limbs twelve and fifteen inches through. The 
smaller limbs and foliage are at least fifty feet across ; a half dozen of 
them shade an acre of ground and they sometimes yield per tree a ton 
of fruit. But such trees do not meet orchard requirements and are 
only mentioned to show what the tree may do when it has its own way. 

The apricot is a rapid grower and an early and heavy bearer in 
California. In the interior and in the southern coast valleys it yields 
a paying crop during its third summer in the orchard, and from eight 
to fourteen tons to the acre was reached for several years in succession, 
in Judge Blackwood's old orchard of Royal apricots, in Alameda 
County. The trees, even of some varieties which are uncertain bearers, 
are large and vigorous growers, and have warranted the suggestion 
that there is a use for the apricot tree for a windbreak for the protec- 
tion of other trees. The trees may be planted near together in strong 
land and make a windbreak that will pay its way without regard to 
such fruit as it may incidentally produce. 

Apricots are chiefly marketed as a dried fruit and the operation 
of drying will be described in the chapter devoted to such processes. 
The amount used in canning is, in a year of full production, about one- 
quarter of that for drying, while the weight of fruit sold fresh to con- 
sumers, near and far, is about one-quarter of that used by the canners, 

210 



NATURAL REQUIREMENTS 211 

LOCALITIES I'OR THE APRICOT 

In discussing localities for the apricot, reference is, of course only 
made to its growth as a standard orchard tree without protection of 
any kind. It shows even in California that it does not forget the con- 
ditions which destroy its thrift elsewhere, for late frosts in our upper 
coast counties render it, as a rule, unprofitable. Speaking broadly, the 
quarter of the State lying northward of the Bay of San Erancisco and 
westward of the high ridge of the Coast Range is not suited for com- 
mercial apricot growing; though here and there are places where bear- 
ing may be regular and abundant enough to make trees satisfactory for 
home gardens. The mountain regions everywhere in the State above 
an elevation of about 1200 feet are also to be excluded. The lowest 
lands of the great interior valleys, except here and there, where frosts 
are prevented by proximity of broad streams of by favoring air currents, 
are unsuited for apricots, and the bottoms of small valleys whence cold 
air can not find drainage outlet, are also treacherous. It is evident 
then, that even in regions of general adaptation to the fruit local dis- 
crimination must be exercised in selecting lands for apricots, and the 
occurrence of spring frosts, which are usually governed by topography, 
must be guarded against. This is not the same problem which arises 
in the selection of land for citrus fruits, because apricots are not open 
to injury during December, January and Eebruary, and consequently 
they may be successfully grown in places where winter temperatures 
might injure the evergreen trees of the citrus family. Still, next to 
the almond, the apricot is most liable to frost injury of all our decidu- 
ous tree fruits, and commercial success depends largely upon the selec- 
tion of a proper place for them. The occurrence of even light frosts 
during the blooming and setting, or soon after, may strip the tree of its 
burden of fruit without injury to even the softest of twig and leaf; con- 
sequently, regular bearing of the apricot can not be expected where 
the temperature is apt to fall four or five degrees below freezing point 
during the months of March and April, even though the duration of 
such temperature may be very brief. For this reason the area of Cali- 
fornia which is well suited to apricot growing is limited when com- 
pared with the great area of the State, though when counted by acres 
it is ample enough to sup])ly all the fresh canned and dried apricots 
which the markets of the world can be expected to take at profitable 
figures. 

It is often claimed that situations directly subject to ocean influ- 
ences are best for the apricot. It is noted by many observers 
that the apricot "points its best branches to the ocean, in the very teeth 
of the constant breeze, and the landward limbs and twigs bend up and 
endeavor to reach the same direction. This is patent in every tree, and 
in the long orchard rows is very striking." This is taken to signify 
the special liking of the tree for the vicinity of the coast. It is well 
enough to interpret it that way, providing one does not lose sight of 
the perfect success of the apricot in the interior as well. It is true that 
the fruit near the coast attains higher color, and the less rapid growth 
of the tree makes it f^Dmewhat easier to handle, but the earlier ripen- 
ing in the interior, coupled with freedom from fog and constant sun- 



212 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

shine for drying, are points of the highest industrial importance. The 
fact is that the apricot has a very wide range in CaHfornia, and though 
the trees have been cut out at some points it has been chiefly because 
too frosty locations have been chosen or because some other fruit has 
seemed to be locally more desirable, for one reason or another. 

In some valleys in the upper part of the State opening directly to 
the ocean, there is sometimes complaint of the cracking of the fruit on 
the sunny side. The alteration of sunshine and fog seems to have 
something to do with this, for in favorable years, when fogs are few, 
the fruit is sound. 

Locations for early ripening of the apricot are to be chosen with 
reference to the influence of topography, as laid down in Chapter I. In 
a general way, it may be said, in regions directly subject to coast in- 
fluences, both in northern and southern California, the apricot is late. 
On the west side of the Sacramento Valley, on slightly elevated places, 
in small, hill-locked valleys, the earliest apricots have been grown for 
years. Protected situations in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada, on 
the eastern rim of both the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys, share 
in the production of the earliest ripening fruit. There is probably 
about a month's difference in the ripening of the same variety in the 
earliest situations and in the coast valleys of both northern and south- 
ern California. 

In the interior of southern California, in irrigated situations, on the 
west side of the Colorado River and in adjacent parts of Arizona, 
apricots rival in earliness the product of the famous valleys of interior 
northern California. 

Recently a measure of success with the apricot has been attained 
in irrigated sections of eastern Washington, Idaho and Utah. If win- 
ter temperatures are low enough to keep the tree dormant and yet not 
injure the fruit buds and frosts are absent after growth begins, success 
ought to be attainable. 

STOCKS AND SOILS FOR THE APRICOT 

Because of the success with which the apricot can be budded on 
various stocks, it has a wide range in adaptation to dififerent soils. 
Budded on the peach root it may be grown successfully on the light, 
warm, well-drained loams in which the peach delights. The peach 
root is, in fact, largely used for the apricot. It gives the tree quick 
growth and early fruiting, and the fact that the gopher does not like 
the peach root is a consideration with some planters. In growing 
stocks, pits of a strong-growing yellow peach are believed to yield 
more uniform and thrifty seedlings. 

For deep, rich, well-drained, loamy soils, the apricot on its own 
root makes a magnificent tree. Apricot roots for budding are easily 
secured. The pits sprout as readily as corn. Sometimes, where cutting 
and drying are done in the orchard, the ground the next spring will be 
almost covered with a volunteer crop of seedling apricots. These little 
plants, taken up and set out in nursery rows in March, are ready for 
iDudding in June or July. Large numbers of trees are sometimes 



RELATIONS OF APRICOT AND ALMOND 213 

secured in this way. In the upper San Joaquin Valley there «re situa- 
tions in which the apricot seems more productive on its own roots than 
on the peach, and in the moister parts of the San Fernando and tribu- 
tary valleys in southern California the apricot root has recently ad- 
vanced in popularity. It is, however, rather more sensitive to soil- 
drouth than the peach root. 

When it is desired to grow the apricot in moister and heavier soils 
than have been described, or where a light soil is underlaid by a heavy, 
retentive subsoil, recourse should be had to the plum root. Only a 
non-suckering plum stock should be used. For this purpose the Myro- 
balan has been considerably used. Some growers complain that the 
root has a dwarfing effect on the tree, and object to its use. The 
manner of securing Myrobalan stocks has been described in the chapter 
on propagation. 

Apricot and Almond. — The almond should as a rule be rejected 
as a stock for the apricot. Hundreds have tried it, and found that the 
scion never made a good union with the wood of the stock but was 
knit to it only by the bark, and is, therefore, easily broken oflf by the 
wind. It may grow well and sometimes gets to be two or three inches 
in diameter before it breaks off, thus wasting much time for the 
orchardist. Whole orchards worked in this way have been a loss and 
disappointment. 

A few growers, however, approve the almond and use it with the 
idea that it gives larger fruit. It has been claimed that the Royal 
apricot will take well on the almond seedling by root grafting instead 
of budding, using the side graft. Cut off the top of the stock about 
four to six inches above ground, scrape away the dirt, bend the stock, 
and, with a sharp, thin knife, cut into the root to the center, making 
the cut perpendicular, so that the graft will be that way when in- 
serted. The scion should be made wedge-shaped. After insertion, 
draw the loose earth around it, and the work is done until the graft 
has made a growth of eighteen to twenty-four inches. This is given 
as a record of experience, but still caution is urged against the use 
of the almond as a stock for the apricot. 

The apricot may also be made to hold on the almond by double 
working, growing on the almond seedling first a shoot from a peach or 
plum bud and then working an apricot bud higher up in the new shoot. 

In addition to the specifications of certain stocks for different soils. 
it may be remarked, in a general way, that the apricot seems to thrive 
better on a tolerably heavy soil, with enough sand to make it work 
easily, than on a very light soil. It does well on soil rather too heavy 
for the peach. It also enjoys moisture better and gives signs of dis- 
tress unless its roots are fairly supplied all during the season, but it 
dislikes standing water and should not be planted on undrained situa- 
tions. 

PLANTING THE APRICOT 

The apricot becomes a large tree in California, as has already been 
remarked, and it should be given plenty of room. Twenty-four feet 
each way is certainly the minimum distance for so large and long- 
lived tree, and some orchards have been planted at thirty feet. If 



214 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

nearer planting is done it should be with reference to subsequent re- 
moval of part of the trees, which, however, is very seldom done. 
Twenty feet apart, with later removal of half the trees to double the 
distance was proposed by H. D. Briggs, of Azusa, in this way : 

In setting out an orchard it seems advisable to double set the ground, as an 
apricot twelve to fifteen years old should have not less than 800 to 900 square 
feet of ground. This can easily be obtained by setting 20 x 20 feet; then when 
nine or ten years old remove every other tree, making them forty feet in the 
row, with rows twenty feet apart, of course, taking them out diagonally. The 
trees will very quickly tell the orchardist when they are too thick. When the 
outside rows have twice the fruit of those inside, it is quite evident that the time 
spent in pruning, etc., on half of the trees is worse than wasted. I have cut 
roots forty feet from a nine-year-old tree. 

The apricot makes such rapid growth and so much depends upon 
giving it proper form, as will be seen presently, that one year's growth 
is all that should be allowed in the nursery. Some growers would 
rather have a dormant bud than a two-year-old tree, and cases have 
been reported from dormant buds outgrowing yearling trees planted 
at the same time in the same orchard. But in growing from a dor- 
mant bud in the orchard care should be taken to develop a short trunk, 
with properly-spaced branches, by pinching the side shoots near the 
ground. Trees started from dormant bud and allowed to branch from 
the ground, have developed very unsatisfactory form, and have, in 
some situations, lost their lower branches by the wind. The tree 
should have a low head, but a short trunk seems to give a better tree, 
and more elasticity to the branches. 



PRUNING THE APRICOT 

Of all the California orchard trees, the apricot seems most in need 
of the constant attention of the orchardist to give it proper shape and 
strength. It is a rampant grower, and in its zealous haste for size 
and fruitage it over-reaches itself and becomes the prey of specific 
gravity and wind force. Thousands of trees have been ruined by 
literally breaking to pieces with the weight of their fruit, and being 
torn by winds of only ordinary velocity. Thousands more have been 
rescued from such a fate by bolting the branches to each other. This 
excessive growth and consequent weakness of the apricot is greater 
in some parts of the State than in others, because of the difference in 
degree of forcing conditions, but everywhere the apricot needs watch- 
fulness and timely aid in building up its strength. The general prin- 
ciples to be observed in securing branches strongly attached to a short 
trunk have already been discussed at length in the chapter on pruning. 

There has been a very marked change during the last few years 
of the pruning of the apricot. Summer pruning, immediately after the 
fruit is picked, has become much more general, and winter pruning 
has proportionally decreased. The new practice is certainly more 
rational than the old. Young trees are winter pruned to promote low 
branching and short, stout limbs ; bearing trees are summer pruned to 
promote fruit bearing and check wood growth — the excess of bearing 
shoots being removed by thinning during the winter. 



COMMON VASE-FORM OF APRICOT TREE 215 

The apricot tree bears upon old spurs, like the plum ; also upon the 
new wood, like the peach. This fact has to be borne in mind when 
winter thinning of the new growth is undertaken. 

A very clear record of procedure is given by J. B. Neff, of Ana- 
heim, Orange County, who built up one of the best apricot orchards 
in the State as he describes. This orchard was displaced to make way 
for English walnut trees which are more profitable in that district, but 
that was no fault of the pruning: 

Pruning the apricot requires some skill and considerable judgment, which can 
only be formed by experience and observation of the habits of the tree. Trees 
of four to five feet in heiglit are preferable for planting, and when planted should 
be trimmed to a single stem and cut off at eighteen inches from the ground. 
These will throw out shoots vigorously, and frequently two or three shoots from 
one bud. These shoots should be thinned out, leaving not more than four or 
five, no two of which should come from one bud, nor be directly opposite. The 
first shoot should start twelve inches from the ground, the others in such a 
manner as to divide the space and make the branches balance, leaving the top 
shoot to form the central part of the tree. 

It will be necessary to go over the trees several times the first year to remove 
shoots that may start where not wanted, but no general heading back should be 
done, as it tends to dwarf the tree ; though if some of the limbs are making an 
overgrowth they should be pinched back to keep the head balanced. 

In the pruning of the second year, the first year's growth should be cut back 
to within five or ten inches of the body of the tree, and all forks should be 
cut out, even if it necessitates forming a new head, as it is much better to lose 
some growth on a young tree than to take the risk of splitting down when the 
tree begins to bear fruit. 

When the shoots start for the second year's growth, take off all that come on 
the under side of the limbs and thin to one, two, or three, as may be needed to 
balance the tree. 

The second year will require much more attention than the first year, in order 
to keep off suckers and all lateral growth that may start on the under side of 
the new limbs, the object being to make the limbs grow as nearly upright as 
possible. The remark on heading back holds good for the second year also. 

In pruning for the third year the second year's growth should now be cut 
back to within fifteen to twenty inches of the old wood, except the central stem, 
which may be left twenty-four to thirty inches long, depending on the number 
of laterals it may have thrown out. When the new shoots start they should 
again be thinned down to two or three on each limbs, and all taken off that 
tend to turn down or out at right angles, but do not take off the fruit spurs. 

During the third season's growth, go over the trees about three times before 
July to remove suckers and lateral growth that may start on the lower side of 
the limbs, as the tendency in the third year is to make an immense growth of 
downward laterals, and these must be taken off so as to develop wood that is to 
be left for fruit. If the orchard is on good land and has been properly irrigated 
and cultivated there will be a few specimens of the fruit the third year, and as 
soon as these are gathered the trees should be summer pruned for the first time, 
care being taken that the land shall have been allowed to become moderately dry 
so that the trees may be partially dormant. If the downward growth of the later- 
als has been kept cut off, all that remains to be done is to cut off about one-half of 
all this season's growth all over the tree, using the same judgment as before with 
reference to prevailing winds and symmetry of tree. If this is properly done and 
water at once turned on the orchard, a new growth will be made and the fruit 
buds for next year fully developed. 

The only pruning necessary in the following winter will be to take out any 
cross limbs and sprouts that may have been overlooked in the summer. 

After the trees begin to produce regular crops they will not grow so vigor- 
ously, and the numerou* prunings of the first three years will not be necessary, 
as almost all can be done by summer pruning until the trees get so old that they 
need the old wood taken out. This can be more readily done without damage 



216 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

to the trees where from 24 to 30 limbs are grown, than in the old method of 
leaving only eight or ten large limbs. A few limbs can be taken out each year 
until a full crop of new wood is again made. 

The foregoing- describes the development of the common vase form. 
A method of forming the apricot with continuous leaders is described 
in Chapter XII. 

Winter Pruning of Bearing Trees. — The evident defect of many 
old apricot orchards is the failure of the low-bearing wood and the 
thicket of brush near the ends of long bare limbs. Such trees need 
renewal of the top by vigorous winter pruning, which should prefer- 
ably be done toward the close of the dormant season rather than early 
in the winter as formerly. Old and unprofitable trees have been re- 
claimed in this way. 

Winter pruning is still the regular method in some parts of the 
State where the conditions do not favor excessive growth of the tree 
and where summer pruning does not seem to be called for. The 
practice is to remove half or tworthirds of the new growth and thin 
out, by removing entirely enough new and old wood to prevent the 
tree from becoming thick and brushy. In shortening the bearing 
shoots it should be remembered that the larger fruits usually grow 
nearer to the tip than to the base of the shoot. 

THINNING THE APRICOT 

All free-fruiting varieties of the apricot must be thinned to secure 
size acceptable to purchasers. It is the experience of the oldest grow- 
ers that though thinning is an expensive operation, it is very profitable. 
When half the fruit is taken ofif in thinning, the remainder reaches as 
large aggregate weight as though the whole were allowed to mature 
and thinned fruit is worth about twice as much per pound. Even if 
less weight is secured, and in most cases the purpose should be to get 
less weight, the tree is spared the exhaustion of over-bearing and the 
owner escapes a year of little or no fruit. A discussion of this subject 
is given in a previous chapter. 

Where conditions are favorable, the tree will set more fruit than it 
can bring to full size, and for this reason thinning or spacing the fruit 
on the twigs by hand-picking, while the fruit is about the size of a 
pigeon's egg;, is almost a universal practice among the best commercial 
growers. This is necessary to bring the individual fruits to the 
diameters required by canners or overland shippers and which they 
scale in price according to size: Extras, 2% inches; No. 1, 2 inches; 
No. 2, ly^ inches. Fruit of less size is hard of sale unless the crop 
happens to be very small. It has also been found that thinning to 
regulate size is quite as important when the fruit is to be dried by the 
grower as when sold as fresh fruit. 

IRRIGATION OF THE APRICOT 

Whether the apricot shall be irrigated or not is answered in the 
chapter on irrigation. In many locations, with proper pruning, thin- 
ning and cultivation, perfectly satisfactory fruit can be grown with the 



IRRIGATION OF THE APRICOT 217 

usual rainfall. In others a single winter irrigation will satisfy all the 
needs of the tree; in others a single irrigation just after fruit picking 
and summer pruning will carry the tree through. It is a fact, how- 
ever, that as the trees advance in age some supplement to the average 
rainfall is often desirable and in dry years irrigation is the saving of 
two crops. Some idea of the amount of water used can be had from 
the chapter on irrigation. The following account by Mr. Nefif applies 
to this practice in Orange County, which is an average situation as to 
rainfall and atmospheric humidity, and is as good a general statement 
as could be made : 

If rains are copious, winter irrigation may be dispensed with during the first 
two or three years after planting the orchard, but when the trees reach the age 
for bearing fruit the rain water should be supphmted by irrigation water until 
the soil is thoroughly wet 5 feet deep, and in order to have this, at least 20 inches 
of water, including rainfall, must be put on the land. Three irrigations should be 
given the trees during the first summer, but it is not necessary to wet more than 
a strip 5 or 6 feet wide along the tree rows. The orchard should have three 
irrigations during the second summer and a strip 12 feet wide should be watered, 
as the roots are reaching farther and the trees require a greater amount of water. 
The irrigation for the first two years should always be done before the trees 
show any want of water, so as to keep them growing vigorously. 

All the space between the trees should be watered the third year and after- 
ward ; but two irrigations will be sufficient for the summer. The best time for 
the summer irrigation of bearing apricot trees is when the fruit is about half 
grown, which is usually about the second or third week in May. 

If well watered at this time the fruit grows to its largest, and has time to 
ripen slowly as the ground gradually dries, unlil it has all the sugar which will 
go into the fruit. An orchard in full bearing that has been well watered in the 
winter should now have as much as full 100 inches of water for two hours on 
each acre (equal to four acre-inches). 

The second irrigation should be given as soon as possible after the summer 
pruning is done, in order to start the trees growing and develop the fruit buds 
for the next year. This will not require so much water as the irrigation in May, 
but ought to be as much as 100 inches of water for one hour on each acre. 

Winter irrigation of apricots on deep soils, as supplementary to 
rainfall and largely reducing summer irrigation, is a very satisfactory 
recourse in some districts. 

DISEASES OF THE APRICOT 

Though the apricot tree, as has been said, is regarded as one of 
the healthiest fruit trees, it is subject to some maladies. Trees perish 
from being set in unsuitable situations, and in these cases, if the evil 
be stagnant water in the soil, or penetration to alkaline subsoil, the root 
shows it. Sometimes, however, a branch or a whole tree withers and 
dies without apparent cause early in the simimer, and while the root is 
still sound. The disease is evidently acute, but its cause is not known, 
nor a remedy proposed. It is an old trouble of the apricot, and not 
peculiar to California. 

The so-called "gum disease" sometimes causes injury to trees. The 
best treatment is to cut away the diseased part down to healthy wood 
and cover the wound with common lead and oil paint, putting on spar- 
ingly so as not to flow over healthy bark. 

Some years certafn varieties in particular are blackened at the pit 
and rendered unsalable, but the trouble has not thus far proved serious 



218 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



generally, except with certain varieties which have generally gone out 
of use for that reason. 

The worst injury to tree and fruit is done by what is called the 
"shot-hole fungus" (coryneum), from its perforations of the leaves as 
though by a charge from a shotgun. It makes ugly scars on the fruit, 
which renders it unsalable. The same disease also- affects the leaves of 
cherries and plums. Thorough use of the Bordeaux mixture described 
in a later chapter will prevent this trouble. 

A disease which is prevalent in some districts of southern Cali- 
fornia is called "black heart" ; a pith disease which sometimes does 
great injury. No treatment except that of pruning back to healthy 
wood has thus far been proposed. Root knot is also a serious trouble 
of the apricot as of several other trees. It will be considered in the 
chapter devoted to disease of fruit trees. 

Until recently the apricot has been generally free from scale in- 
sects, and it is not affected by those species which are worst on some 
other fruit trees, but recently it has been seriously infested in some 
places with black and brown scales, which will be considered in a later 
chapter. 

The ripe apricot is sometimes seriously assailed by the diahrotica, 
a small green beetle, with twelve black spots upon its wing covers. 
Driving the insects away with smoke smudges has been used to some 
extent. Fortunately, the insect only occasionally occurs in large num- 
bers. 

Varieties Approved by California Growers. 



VARIETIES. 

Barry 

Blenheim 

Early Golden 

Early Moorpark 

Hemskirke 

Large Early 

Large Early Montgamet. 

Luizet 

Moorpark , 

Newcastle 

Oullin's Early 

Peach 

Royal 

Routier's Peach 

Spark's Mammoth 

St. Ambroise 

Tilton 

Wiggin's Seedling 



Central 
Coast 
valleys 


Interior 
valley and 
foothills 


Southern 
California 


* 






** 


** 


** 




* 


** 
*♦ 


** 


* 






* 


** 


* 


* 
* 




** 


* 

** 


* 


* 


* 






** 


* 


** 


** 

** 


** 


* 


* 




* 


** 
* 


* 



VARIETIES OF THE APRICOT 

Though nearly all standard varieties of the apricot have been in- 
troduced and planted in this State, comparatively few are found on the 
list of the orchard planters. Many local seedlings have been brought 
to notice and propagated to some extent but are less used now than 



DESCRIPTIONS OF POPULAR APRICOTS 219 

twelve years a^o, and the disposition is to restrict planting to a few 
old varieties. There is, however, still a need of new varieties combin- 
ing size, quality and regular bearing. 

VARIETIES OF FOREIGN ORIGIN 

Large Early. — A French variety ; fruit of medium size, rather oblong and 
compressed; suture deep, skin slightly downy; pale orange in the shade, fine 
bright orange with a few ruddy spots in the sun ; flesh separating readily from 
the stone, orange colored, rich and juicy; kernel bitter. This variety is especially 
popular in the southern coast counties, but in most situations has proved an 
uncertain bearer. Ripens before Royal. 

IViggin's Seedling. — Favored in Winter's district as best of early apricots ; 
good size, fine color, solid red cheek, good bearer; ten days earlier than Royal. 

Early Golden. — Origin unknown ; small, roundish oval, with suture well 
marked and extending half way round; skin smooth, pale orange; flesh yellow, 
moderately juicy and sweet, with very good flavor; separates from the stone. 
This variety is reported favorably from some counties, but generally otherwise, 
and is not largely grown. Ripens before Royal. 

Royal. — A French variety, and at the present time the leading California 
apricot. Of large size (when well thinned out), free stone, fine color and flavor, 
good bearer, and fruit ripens evenly, when well grown ; a favorite with the 
canners, and an excellent variety for drying. Fruit roundish, large, oval, slightly 
compressed ; skin dull yellow with orange check, very faintly tinged with red, and 
a shallow suture; flesh pale orange, firm and juicy, with a rich vinous flavor. 

The Derby Royal is grown in the Winter's district ; like the standard Royal 
but two weeks earlier. 

There is a variety somewhat grown in Sacramento and Solano counties, some- 
times called "White Royal," which is not liked by canners, because of its lack of 
color and flavor. 

Large Early Montgamct. — Large, orange yellow, reddish on sunny side, firm. 

Oullin's Early. — Early form of Peach apricot, large size, delicious flavor. 
Ripens in Amador county four weeks earlier than Peach. 

Luizet. — Large, oval, distinct suture, one side higher than the other; orange 
with crimson cheek; flesh deep yellow, firm, rich. Especially approved in the 
upper San Joaquin. 

Blenheim or Shipley. — This is a valuable variety in this State, standing next 
to Royal in popularity ; was described by John Rock as follows : "A very good 
variety, above medium, oval; orange, with a deep yellow, juicy and tolerably 
rich flesh; vigorous grower and regular, prolific bearer." This behavior of the 
variety was demonstrated fully in the University orchard at Berkeley, where it 
was for years the best of twenty varieties. It is now popular in all parts of the 
State. Fruit runs a little larger than the Royal, and is usually better distributed 
on the tree, but it must be well thinned. This variety has been approved by 
canners. Ripens a little later than the Royal. 

Alherge de Montgamet. — Large and handsome, late, grown in Vacaville 
district. 

Early Moorpark. — Very popular in Southern California, where its identity has 
been long in dispute, and is not yet fully determined. The Early Moorpark of 
Thomas Hogg is as follows : Roundish, inclining to oval, with very deep suture 
on one side, extending from base to apex. Skin yellow, mottled, and dotted with 
crimson on the exposed side. Flesh in all respects resembling Moorpark. Stone 
oblong, with a covered channel along the back, which is pervious. Kernel bitter. 
Ripens three weeks earlier than Moorpark. 

5"/. Ambroise. — Large, early, compressed, deep yellow, reddish on sunny side. 
Juicy, rich, and sugary, with firm flesh when grown in the interior; apt to be 
coarse and to lack flavor /loar the coast. Condemned by canners for not process- 
ing well, and by dryers for loss of weight and for white color around the pit. It 
has served well as a shipping variety. 



220 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

Bergetti. — An undetermined variety introduced by Mr. Bergetti and widely 
distributed under his name in the San Joaquin. 

Hemskirke. — A fine English variety quite widely grown in California ; ripens 
later than Royal ; described by Downing as follows : "Fruit large, roundish, but 
considerably compressed or flattened on its sides; skin orange, with red cheek; 
flesh bright orange, tender, rather more juicy and sprightly than the Moorpark, 
with rich, luscious, plum-like flavor ; stone not perforate, rather small, and 
kernel bitter." Esteemed in California because the tree is more hardy and a 
more regular bearer than the Moorpark, and the fruit ripens evenly on both 
sides. Sometimes drops worse than other varieties. 

Peach. — A variety from Piedmont of the largest size, about two inches in 
diameter, roundish, rather flattened, and somewhat compressed on its sides, with 
a well-marked suture ; skin yellow in the shade, but deep orange mottled with 
brown on the sunny side; flesh of a fine yellow, saffron color, juicy, rich, and 
high flavored; stone can be penetrated like Moorpark, and has bitter kernel. 
This has been a very successful sort in the warmer parts of the State especially, 
and a favorite in the Sacramento Valley, but is now in less favor because of 
rapid ripening and inferior appearance in canning and drying. It ripens just 
ahead of the Moorpark. 

Moorpark. — A standard of excellence and an old variety which originated in 
England. Fruit large, roundish, about two inches and a quarter in diameter each 
way ; rather larger on one side of the suture than on the other ; skin orange in 
the shade, but deep orange or brownish red in the sun, marked with numerous 
dark specks and dots ; flesh quite firm, bright orange, parting free from the stone, 
quite juicy, with a rich and luscious flavor; stone peculiarly perforated along the 
back, where a pin may be pushed through ; kernel bitter. In California the 
Moorpark reaches grand size, but has the fault of ripening unevenly in most 
localities. The tree is tender and bears irregularly, which leads to its rejection 
by most planters, though some growers cling to it because of its size and quality 
and occasional grand crops. The San Jose districts lead in the production of 
this variety, and in some parts of the Santa Clara Valley the Moorpark seems to 
ripen uniformly. The same behavior is reported from localities in the upper San 
Joaquin Valley, where it also seems to be a more regular bearer. The variety is 
almost wholly rejected in Southern California. 

VARIETIES OF CALIFORNIA ORIGIN 

Newcastle. — Originated with C. M. Silva & Son, of Newcastle, Placer county, 
in 1881; size medium, round, with spherical pit; freestone; not quite as large as 
the Royal, nor quite as rich in flavor, but more highly colored ; rather darker on 
the side to the sun. Early, regular and good bearer, a medium grower, being 
more upright than the Royal. Its time of ripening has been reported as seventeen 
days earlier than the Early Golden, and twenty-five days earlier than the Royal. 

Routier's Peach. — Originated with Joseph Routier, near Sacramento. Large, 
yellow in shade ; deep orange, mottled or splashed with red in the sun ; flesh 
juicy and rich, high flavor and a good market variety. Blooms a week later 
than Peach. Very popular in Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys. 

Spark's Mammoth. — Popular in Ventura county. Largest size, even larger 
than Moorpark; pale yellow, very tender, juicy and sweet; abandoned for shy 
bearing. 

Tilton. — Chance seedling first noticed about 1885 on place of J. E. Tilton, near 
Hanford, Kings county, and distinguished by regular bearing. Propagated and 
introduced by J. W. Bairstow, of Hanford. Fruit large ; freestone ; .symmetrical, 
ripening evenly and one week to ten days later than Royal. Tree vigorous and 
prolific. Widely planted recently and very promising, though condemned for shy 
bearing in some places. Colors in advance of ripening and is often picked too 
green for best quality in drying. 

Late Englchardt. — Chance seedling originating at La Crescenta. Propagated 
and introduced by W. B. Thorne of Tropico. Large as Moorpark, ripening 
evenly and twenty-eight days later than Royal. Claimed to be a very late 
bloomer, and thus escaping frosts which caught all other varieties at similar 
elevations. Planted chiefly in Los Angeles county. 



CHAPTER XIX 

THE CHERRY 

Although the amount of cherries grown in this State is small as 
compared with the aggregate weights of some other fruits, the cherry, 
from the growth of the tree and the size and quality of the product, 
is entitled to rank as one of the grand fruits of California. The size 
of the California-grown cherry is a matter of pride with the residents, 
and a marvel to visitors. It is related that, many years ago, one of the 
most distinguished Eastern pomologists, who was taken to an Alameda 
County cherry orchard during picking time, could not recognize the 
varieties, though he had himself propagated and shipped to California 
the very trees which were bearing the fruit, the size of which so far 
surpassed all his mental standards. And quality is commensurate with 
size. Whatever disagreement there may be concerning the flavors of 
our other fruits as compared with Eastern, the richness and excellence 
of the California cherry have never been impeached. Recently the 
shipment of cherries to eastern markets, the extension of the canning 
interest, and the uprising of a demand for maraschino-preserving have 
considerably enlarged the opportunity for profitable growth of the fruit. 

Famous Old Trees. — The longevity and productiveness of the 
cherry tree in this State is naturally of interest. Cherries that were 
planted in some of the earliest settled parts of the State are still in 
full vigor. One of the famous trees is a Black Tartarian, which was 
brought from France by Dr. L. E. Miller, and planted by him in 1854, 
on land afterwards owned by Robert Hector in Placer county, just 
below Rattlesnake Bar, on the American River, about eight hundred 
feet above sea-level. It is described as above seventy feet in height, the 
branches covering a space between seventy feet and seventy-five feet in 
diameter. The trunk branches about six feet above the ground, and 
at that point has a girth of over ten feet. A close record of its crop, 
kept for a number of years when the tree was over thirty years of age, 
showed that it yielded from a ton to a ton and a half a year. Such trees 
are too large to be profitable, for the fruit has to be picked with the 
aid of extension ladders securely guyed, by men slung in swings from 
such ladders or the forks of the trees. At last reports there were 
about fifty of these large trees. Other large trees were to be seen near 
Woodside, San Mateo County, and near Oroville and Chico in Butte 
County, some of which have borne a ton of fruit in favorable seasons. 

LOCALITIES FOR THE CHERRY 

In California there are many districts in which the cherry does not 

do well, and situations for the fruit must therefore be selected with 

discrimination. The'chief product is made in the coast valleys adjacent 

to the Bay of San Francisco, including its extension east of the Coast 

221 



222 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Range, known as Suisun bay, for in all these regions there is a modifi- 
cation of climate due to the influence of ,ocean temperature and 
moisture. Away from these influences the cherry also thrives on the 
alluvial bottoms of large rivers and their tributary creeks, both on the 
low lands of the valleys and the foothills, while on broad valley plains 
and foothill slopes it is not usually satisfactory. In the mountain val- 
leys cherries also thrive in suitable soils. In southern California at 
elevations where moisture is adequate and temperatures favor suitable 
winter dormancy of the trees, good cherries are profitably grown, 
while on the mesas and valleys below, where citrus fruits flourish, the 
cherry is an aggravation. 

How far atmospheric conditions which are beyond control influence 
the growth and fruitage of the cherry, can not yet be fully determined, 
but ample trial seems to demonstrate the unsatisfactory character of 
the tree, manifested in small fruit and sunburned foliage, on the plains 
of interior valleys, although the soil is kept moist enough. There is, 
however, still the chance of securing varieties of the fruit which have 
been developed under conditions similar to those prevailing in the 
interior of California. The Russian cherries, which are largely grown 
in a region subject to high summer heat and dry air, will succeed in 
parts of California where the varieties originating in west Europe fail. 
Though this was suggested long ago, the efifort has not yet been made. 

SOILS FOR THE CHERRY 

The cherry thrives in free deep soil, in which water does not stand 
too near the surface. It delights in deep deposits from old water 
courses, and does not dislike a moderate amount of sand. A loam 
underlaid by a sandy subsoil is acceptable if it is not allowed to dry 
out in the late summer, but a loam underlaid by clay has shown its 
unfitness by the early failure of the trees, because of standing water in 
the rainy season, while those on deep loam near by have remained 
vigorous and profitable. On the foothills it thrives in the light, mellow 
soil and fails in the tight clay either in soil or subsoil, as it does in the 
adobe of lower lands ; and yet a clay loam of no great depth upon a 
clay subsoil may grow good trees if the clay be so disposed that sur- 
plus water from winter rains can escape and water is at hand to guard 
against summer drouth. Commercial orchards should have a good 
depth of sufficiently retentive soil. The great cherry trees which we 
have mentioned, are growing right on the bank of the American River, 
where the soil is a pure, sandy loam, in some places over sixty feet 
deep, as proved by an old shaft once dug near the center of the 
orchard. 

But though the cherry dislikes a wet soil, it is particular about 
its water supply and insists upon enough, its requirements being 
greater than some other trees. During the dry year 1898-99, also in 
1912-13, trees came into distress where they had never suffered before, 
and many large valuable trees died. The only new condition they 
encountered was lack of soil moisture. It thus appears that while 
the cherry is undoubtedly injured by excess of water in the soil 



MOISTURE REQUIREMENTS OF THE CHERRY 223 

it is still very exacting in its requirement of an adequate supply. 
If this can not be retained in the soil by cultivation, irrigation must 
be resorted to. Thus the cherry growers in the famous Willows 
district of San Jose, usually find it an advantage to give their trees 
an irrigation between the spring rains and the ripening of the fruit, 
and another irrigation after the fruit is gathered. 

Irregularity in the moisture supply also causes the cherry to 
bloom and fruit unseasonably. There has been bloom in October 
and ripe fruit in January, due to the fact that trees become dormant 
in late summer from soil-drouth. January cherries may be evi- 
dences of salubrity but they betoken poor horticulture. 

These facts show that the cherry must have water enough or 
it will not succeed. Sometimes young trees which have made a 
good summer growth die outright on leachy soils which dry out 
before the fall rains begin. On the other hand, there must not be 
excessive moisture in the soil either from irrigation or by mois- 
ture. Cherry trees in southern California, planted with orange trees 
and given similar irrigation, have failed utterly. Planting on natur- 
ally moist land in low places has also failed, and observed facts some 
time ago led to the conclusion that at the south the cherry should 
be planted on well-drained land, which could be irrigated (as the 
behavior of the tree indicated its need of water), rather than on 
naturally moist land, because of the likelihood of excessive moisture 
in such situations. More recent experience has declared mellow, 
well-drained soils, of the higher lands well adapted to the cherry and 
on such soils, when well cultivated, cherries have done well 
without irrigation at Pasadena, Pomona and elsewhere. The com- 
mercial cherry product of southern California comes, however, from 
mountain valleys and high plateaux — the chief regions being the 
Yucaipe Valley above Redlands and the Mesa Grande region in the 
interior of San Diego County. 

In California, as elsewdiere. the Dukes and Morellos may succeed 
where the Hearts and Bigarreaux fail. The May Duke seems 
especially hardy, and bears well in Nevada, where other sorts fail 
utterly. 

Delayed Fruiting of Cherry Trees. — Though the cherry in fav 
orable situations bears early, the grower, especially on strong, rich 
lands, will often have many years of disappointment from falling 
blossoms and fruit. During this time the trees will be making 
marvelous wood growth, and this apparently suppresses the fruit- 
ing function. Usually these trees will ultimately bear when their 
exuberant growth declines. They can be thrown into fruit sooner 
by allowing the trees to go uncultivated, or by root pruning, through 
'^'SJ^ing a trench around about eight feet from the tree, and sever- 
ing the roots thus encountered, or by summer pruning. Because of 
this over-growth, growers give such .strong soil to the apple 
or the pear rather than the cherry. Sometimes the non-bearing of 
the cherry is inexplic?ible. Though everything seems to be right, 
and the blossoms are profuse, the fruit will not stick. 



224 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Lack of bearing is sometimes due to the need of cross fertilization. 
There is warrant for the claim that keeping bees in the vicinity of 
cherry orchards has increased the bearing. But varieties must be 
provided which will act as cross-pollinizers. The Royal Ann needs 
this assistance and will bear better when associated with Black Tar- 
tarian, Black Bigarreau, Bing, Lambert and probably others. 



EXPOSURES FOR THE CHERRY 

Exposures for the cherry are chosen both with reference to pro- 
tection from frost injury and to early ripening of the fruit. The 
cherry blooms early; though hardly as venturesome as the apricot 
and almond. In protected situations, guarded from cold northerly 
winds, and open to sunshine on the south and southeast, the fruit 
advances to maturity very rapidly. In Vaca Valley about a month 
of good weather after the blossoming will ripen an early cherry 
and ripe cherries have been shipped as early as March 31. The 
pioneer cherry growers of Vaca Valley went there from their old 
homes in Napa Valley, because they could gather and market cherries 
in their new locations before the same varieties were ripe in Napa 
They chose places protected on the north and west by steep hills. 
The two things to secure are, apparently protection from the sweep 
of cold winds and elevation above the deposits of cold air, which 
occur in depressed places. 

In localities where fruit ripens late, as near the coast, there is 
no need to seek forcing conditions, for the extra early varieties 
should not be planted except for family use. Early varieties are 
comparatively poor in quality, and will not sell profitably, as they 
will reach the market alongside the better later sorts from earlier 
districts. The place for the cherry in the later districts is on the 
most proper soil, according to the requirements which have been 
laid down, avoiding however, so far as possible, wind-swept spots, 
and seeking amelioration of direct ocean influences by elevation or 
intervention of hills and windbreaks. 



PROPAGATION AND PLANTING THE CHERRY 

In the chapter on propagation is given a successful method of 
growing cherry seedlings. California cherry trees are almost exclus- 
ively propagated by budding on seedlings of the Black Mazzard. 
The Mahaleb root is more hardy than the Mazzard and is less 
subject to injury by soil saturation during the winter season. It is 
also more hardy against injury by summer drouth on shallow soils, 
which is one of the causes of die-back of the cherry tree in some 
parts of the State. While there may be particular places in which 
the Mahaleb is the better root, the conclusions of fifty years' experience 
in California cherry growing, which approve the Mazzard, are on 
the whole trustworthy. The Mazzard is a better grower and, where 
moisture conditions are fairly good, leaves little to be desired. The 



PLANTING THE CHERRY 225 

Mazzard, however, thoiigfh credited with a dwarfing influence, does 
make a good sized tree under our conditions. Recently the Morcllo 
or sour cherry seedling, has found favor with some growers on the 
Sacramento River, although it is inhospitable to the buds of some 
varieties, like the Early Purple Guigne and Royal Ann, and double 
working has to be resorted to which is expensive, both in outlay and 
time. The Black Tartarian takes well on the Morello and other 
varieties can be budded upon the Tartarian top growth. 

The planting of the cherry is covered by the general considerations 
already given for the planting of orchards. The distance which 
cherries should be set apart is a disputed point among planters. When 
planted twenty feet apart the trees have interlaced their branches 
when sixteen years old, and the spaces between the rows have been 
covered in like colonnades. In the Hayward region the branches 
of twelve-year-old trees set twenty-eight feet apart have nearly 
reached the other, though continually cut back. Much depends in 
the matter of distance upon the manner of handling the trees. The 
trees can be grown much nearer together by continuous pruning 
than where the usual way of cutting back for the first few years and 
letting the tree take it natural growth after that, is followed. James 
E. Gedney, of Mesa Grande. San Diego County, practices close 
planting and cutting back which may work better on his upland than 
on deeper, moister soils. He says: 

I plant my trees twenty feet apart each way. My method is to plant th'is 
closely and then keep my trees low, by cutting back every year; this facilitates 
gathering the frnit very much. I prefer this way to setting the trees farther 
apart and allowing them to attain too great a height. By the former method I 
secure fully as good, if not better, results per acre, to say nothing of the differ- 
ence in gathering the fruit. Another advantage in keeping the trees headed low 
is that the wind does not aflfect them nearly as much as it does tall trees. 

The best distances are 24 or 28 feet on such deep soils as have 
been described as best befitting the tree and though one may fix 
his distance in planting according to the method of pruning he 
proposes to follow, he should remember that the cherry is naturally 
a large tree, and most old orchards are now over-crowded. 

As with other trees, orchard planters prefer trees with one year's 
growth on the bud in the nursery, because they usually get, then, 
a straight switch with well developed buds all the way down, and 
the head can be formed as desired. For garden planting, older trees, 
properly pruned in the nursery, can be used to advantage. 

PRUNING THE CHERRY 

All our best growers agree in the advantage of a low head for 
the cherry, and all aim to have trunks of young trees from the 
ground up to the limbs literally covered all around with leaves, which 
completely shelter the bark from the rays of the sun. In planting, 
therefore, the side buds are carefully preserved — not to be grown 
into branches, but to' be cut or pinched back when they have come 
out a few inches, leaving just growth enough to clothe the tree with a 



226 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

covering of its own foliage. These spurs not only furnish leaves to 
shade the trunk, but soon become fruit spurs and bear well. 

Low Heading with a Central Stem. — Some of the trees in the 
older orchards have been shaped by carrying up a leader with a 
regular system of side branches, fiead back at planting to two 
feet, pinching off the shoots below the head as stated, and allowing 
the shoots which form the head to grow larger, but they too are 
all to be pinched except the leader, which is allowed to grow as long 
as it pleases during the summer. During fall or winter pruning 
cut back the leader to about twelve or sixteen inches from its starting 
point and cut back the side branches to about six or eight inches. 
This is done year after year, cutting back and thinning out the 
side shoots, pinching the laterals, and allowing the leader to grow, 
never interfering with it until the winter pruning and always letting 
it predominate over the side shoots. By cutting short, wood is 
increased, but at the end of six years the tree goes into fruit very 
rapidly. As the tree increases in fruit it decreases in wood, and by 
the time it is ten or twelve years old there will be but little cutting 
to do, except to shorten in and thin out, and this requires some 
judgment and experience, to know where to cut, how to cut, and when 
to cut. To shorten in, never cut down to an old fruit spur. It is very 
difficult to get healthy wood out of such ; but whenever you can find 
last year's wood, there you can cut with safety anything that is less 
than one inch in diameter. 

This system of pruning must be accompanied by constant pinching 
during the summer time. It should commence when the lower shoots 
are about six inches long, and be followed up closely all through 
the growing season. Those on the trunk should never get longer 
than eight or ten inches, under any circumstances. After these are 
pinched, let the trees rest ten or fifteen days, or until the branches 
in the top get a good start. Then pinch everything clean but the 
leader, in every main branch in the tree. The leader takes its own 
way all through the growing season, to prevent the effects of over- 
pinching or checking the growth. If only the side shoots are kept 
back, the leader or head of the branches receives the current or flow 
of sap and maintains and carries on life and vitality in the tree. 
One object in pinching or spur pruning is to keep back surplus 
wood and create fruit spurs, throwing all the little twigs and branches 
into fruit, thereby utilizing all the wood the tree can produce, not 
allowing it to grow at the tree's expense, and then have to cut it 
ofif. And another object in side-shoot pruning is to make the tree 
produce fine large cherries, all closely nestling around the big wood, 
and no long, slim branches hanging down like weeping willow. All 
such branches are always more or less sunburnt on the top and full 
of worms, one of the evils tending to the destruction of the tree. 

This method is commended to those who like a tree with a central 
leader, and are willing to give their orchards such constant attention. 
Unless pinching and consequent multiplication of shoots and foliage 
is faithfully followed such a tree is apt to become tall and rangy and 
to expose the bark all the way up to sunburn and borers. 



DEVELOPMENT OF VASE-FORM TREE 227 

THE USUAL MET?IOD OF PRUNING THE CHERRY 

As \vc have said, all cherry f^^rowers agree on low heading and 
on the advantage of pinching the lowest shoots as soon as they make 
a bunch of leaves. In forming the head, and in after treatment, 
the usual method is quite different from that we have described. 
It follows the vase or goblet form, which has been discussed at 
length in the chapter on pruning. Of the application of this method 
to the cherry, \V. W. Smith, in an address before the State 
Horticultural Society, said : 

The cherry may be pruned the same as any other deciduous fruit tree until it 
is about five years old; after that the less pruning the better, except when neces- 
sary to cut out a dead or crossing branch. Pruning the cherry is more or less 
likely to produce gum (and this, decay), and should be avoided as much as 
possible. Cherry trees, however, should trained with low heads not to exceed 
eighteen inches from the ground to the first branches ; fifteen inches is better. 
From three to five branches are enough to form the head of the tree ; all others 
should be removed early. Three are better than five; two make a forked tree, 
which is likely to split in after years. 

At the end of the first season we have a neat little tree with three to five 
branches. During the following winter these branches should be cut back to six 
to eight inches. The next season these should be allowed to produce two 
branches each (no more) ; then, at the end of the second season from planting 
out, we have a tree with from six to ten branches. The following winter the 
new growth should be cut back again to from twelve to eighteen inches — 
according to the amount of growth the tree makes — the less the growth the more 
you cut. The same process should be repeated the following winter, treating each 
branch as an individuual tree, until the tree is about five years old ; it takes at 
least five years to get the head of a cherry well established. After this, as 
some varieties will persist in throwing out branches near the ground, they should 
be removed during the summer. At this age the tree, if well grown, will have 
top enough to shade its body from the sun, and there is no further need of 
branches on the main trunk. 

If necessary to remove large branches it should then be done in midsummer, 
as that is the only season when the gum is not more or less exuded. We made 
it a rule to go over and dress up and prune our cherry orchard immediately after 
the crop is gathered — which in our part of the State is the last of May. All 
wounds made then by the removal of l^ranches or otherwise will heal over the 
same season. All large wounds made at any time, however, should be coated 
over with paint. 

The method thus described by Mr. Smith is that by which probably 
nine-tenths of the cherry trees of this State are shaped. 

In the cherrv there should be the same observation as to cutting 
inside and outside buds as with other trees; in fact, the outside bud 
is the rule, because so many varieties make a directly upward growth. 
In removing limbs, cutting to the collar or swelling at the base of 
the limb is especially important, also the covering of the wound to 
prevent checking of the wood. 



GRAFTING OVER THE CHERRY 

Since canning of cherries began on a large scale, there has been 
a vastly increased demand for white cherries. The Royal Ann (a 
local name for Napoleon Bigarrcau) has been the favorite. Other 
white sorts are also used for canning. This rise in favor of the white 



228 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

cherries has vastly increased their proportionate production as com- 
pared with the choice black and red varieties, which are still popular 
as a table fruit. 

It is the experience of growers that the cherry is grafted over as 
easily as the pear or apple, if the tree is healthy. In large trees as 
many as fifty or one hundred grafts may be set, choosing the smaller 
limbs, even if you have to go pretty high in the tree. J. W. Cassidy, 
of Petaluma, used to advise grafting before the sap begins to flow 
in the winter, or if not done then, wait until the buds are well 
advanced or the tree in bloom. He has trees which were over thirty 
years old before they were re-headed, and they made fine tops of new 
and healthy wood, and produced abundantly. The cherry is in fact 
a very easy tree to graft by the usual top-grafting methods. 



PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE CHERRY 

The disease of the cherry which is most heard of is the "gum," 
or overflow and condensation of sap, which, if left to itself, often 
induces decay of adjacent bark and wood. Without attempting to 
explain the cause or causes of the unhealthy exudation, it may be 
said that prompt treatment of certain manifestations is desirable, and 
in others the tree should be cleansed from the flow. Where the 
gum exudes on the side of trunk or limb, the thin outer bark should 
be pared away with a sharp knife, the accumulation of gum and sap 
removed, and the wound painted with lead and oil paint, or covered 
with grafting wax. 

Gum in the crotch should be cleanly brushed out when softened 
by the winter rains. If allowed to remain, it becomes sour and 
offensive and may injure the tree. In places where two or three 
limbs come out close together a kind of cup is formed, which will 
hold the gum from one year's end to another, and in its soft state, 
leaves, sticks, cherry pits, dust, and dirt will stick and hang and 
sometimes the mass becomes very foul. By this collection also, a 
nest is made for all manner of insects, bugs and worms. Another 
evil in letting the gum stay on is, if the rain does not wash it off clean, 
it runs down the trunk of the tree and makes the bark look bad, 
and if it is very thick on the bark when it dries, it will contract and 
crack the bark crosswise, and is very injurious to the tree. 

Gumming in the crotch can be largely avoided by starting the 
young cherry as advocated in the chapter on pruning. Branches 
which emerge from the trunk at separate points and at wide angles 
seldom gum ; those which are crowded together or emerge at acute 
angles gum badly. In shaping young trees a gumming joint sometimes 
may be clearly cut out and those branches selected to remain which 
start out at a wider angle; in older trees there is nothing to do but 
keep the fork clean, as already described. 

There are cases reported in which gumming of old trees has been 
stopped by allowing the ground to lie uncultivated, weeds being cut 



PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE CHERRY 229 

down with the hoe. As a rule, however, the cherry thrives with good 
cultivation. 

Die-back of the Cherry. — The dying back of cherry branches is 
more or less common in all regions, and the immediate cause thereof 
is not known. It is apparently sometimes a root trouble, as is the 
dying back of other fruit trees. This might have resulted from 
standing water in the winter in the soil, although the same condition 
may result from lack of sufficient moisture during the late summer and 
autumn. Anything which causes destruction of the root hairs is apt 
to cause die-back and other forms of unthrift in the top. Early 
vegetative activity in the branch, followed by frost, seems also to 
occasion die-back in some cases. Fortunately, this can occur without 
injury to the rest of the tree, though it is sometimes and in some places 
destructive to the tree in the end. The only treatment is removal of 
the affected wood, and if this can be done during the growing season, 
as soon as signs of injury appear, it is all the better. 

The Gopher. — One of the most dangerous foes of the cherry is 
the gopher, for he seldom takes less than the whole tree, young or 
old. Traces of his presence should be constantly watched for, and 
killing methods described in a later chapter adopted. If a tree is 
seen to wilt suddenly, the probability is that a gopher has girdled 
it. Covering the wound sometimes saves the tree, but not usually. 

Insects injuring the cherry will be mentioned in a subsequent 
chapter. 

VARIETIES OF THE CHERRY 

Many varieties of the cherry have been tested in this State, and 
many have been abandoned from one cause or another. Those most 
frequently starred in our table are the survivors in public esteem. 
As our reports have come from those who grow for market, possibly 
some sorts are too tender for shipment, but excellent for family use, 
are omitted, but will be included in the descriptions which follow the 
table. The claims to value upon which a variety is judged are several: 
Extra earliness, an important consideration in early districts for ship- 
ment, and elsewhere for local sale or family use ; firmness to withstand 
mechanical injury by jarring in transit and durability to escape decay 
during the long journey to distant markets ; firmness and fixed color 
to stand processing in the cannery, and to prevent coloring the juice; 
lateness to extend the cherry season. 

In classification of cherries it was originally considered that there 
were four classes of cherries. The Hearts were the tender and 
half-tender sweet cherries, while the Bigarreaux were the firm-fleshed 
ones ; but these have been so intermingled and blended together by 
hvbridization that no distinct line can now be drawn sejiarating them. 
There is really but one class of these, whose main characteristic is 
the large, vigorous growth of the tree. The Duke and Morello 
cherries, also wanting a natural division, really constitute but one 
class. 



230 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Cherry Varieties Approved by California Growers. 



VARIETY. 

Advance 

Bing 

Bl'k Heart (B. Bigarreau) 

Burbank 

Burr's Seedling 

Centennial 

Chapman 

Cleveland 

Early Purple Guigne 

Elton 

Knight (Early) 

Lambert 

Lewelling (B. Republican) 

Mezel 

Napoleon (Royal Ann).... 

Nonpareil 

Rockport 

Schmidt 

Spanish (Yellow) 

Tartarian (Black) 

Wood (Governor) 



Buttner's Yellow 

Eugenie 

May Duke 

Morello 

Richmond 



Upper 
Coast 
Region. 



Central 
Coast 
Region. 



Interior 

valleys 

and 

foothills. 



Mountain 
valleys 

and 
plateaux. 



Southern 
California 



** 
** 



* 



* 
* 



** 
** 
** 



* 



* 



* 



* 



*Indicates that the variety is approved in the region designated. 
**Most highly commended. 

BIGARREAU AND HEARTS 

Early Lamaitrie. — Fruit large, dark purple; flesh rich, juicy, excellent. Down- 
ing says a week earlier than Early Purple Guigne. Has proved the earliest 
cherry in the University collection at Berkeley, and in Vacaville district. Not 
fully tested as to regular bearing. 

Guigne Marbree. — "Fruit medium large, round, skin dark red; flesh purplish 
red, tender, juicy, delicate flavor." — Gillet. "A better bearer than Early Purple 
Guigne." — W. W. Smith. 

Baumanns May (Early Black Guigne). — Rather small, deep rich red, becom- 
ing rather dark when fully ripe; tender, juicy, tolerably sweet and good. 

Early Purple Guigne. — Small to medium size; purple; tender, juicy, and 
sweet. This variety is considered the earliest good cherry. It is reported a 
shy bearer in some localities. 

Belle d'Orleans. — Above medium size, roundish, heart-shaped; whitish yellow, 
half covered with pale red, very juicy, sweet and excellent. 

Early White Heart. — Below medium size, rather heart-shaped, skin dull 
whitish yellow, tinged and speckled with pale red in the sun; flesh melting, 
sweet, and pleasant when fully ripe. 

White Tartarian. — Fruit of medium size, obtuse heart-shaped; skin pale yel- 
low ; stalk slender ; flesh whitish yellow ; half tender and very sweet. 

American Heart. — Fruit pretty large, heart-shaped, often nearly four-sided 
and irregular in outline borne in clusters ; flesh half tender ; skin strong and 
adhering to flesh. 

Werdcr's Early Black. — An early variety, moderately productive; tree vigor- 
ous, spreading; fruit large, black, tender, sweet and excellent. 



DESCRIPTIONS OF POPULAR CHERRIES 231 

Knight's Early Black. — "Large, black tender, juicy, rich, and excellent; high 
flavor; a shy bearer until the trees attain age." 

Rockport Bigarreau. — Large ; pale amber in the shade, light red in the sun ; 
half tender, sweet and good; a very excellent and handsome cherry; good 
bearer; highly esteemed for canning and shipping. 

Coe's Transparent. — Medium size, pale amber, red and mottled next the sun; 
tender, sweet and fine. 

Clc'i'cland Bigarrcau. — A thrifty, strong, spreading grower, and productive 
large; clear red and yellow; juicy, sweet, and rich. 

Black Tartarian. — Fruit of the largest size, bright purplish black. Flesh 
purplish, thick, juicy, very rich and delicious. Tree a remarkably vigorous, erect, 
and beautiful grower, and an immense bearer; the best of the black cherries. 

Governor Wood. — Large ; light yellow shaded with bright red ; flesh nearly 
tender, juicy, sweet, rich and delicious; a vigorous grower and very productive. 

Elton. — Large, pointed; pale yellow, nearly covered with light red; juicy, 
with a rich and luscious flavor ; one of the best. 

Black Eagle. — A very excellent English variety, ripening in June ; large size, 
deep purple, or nearly black; flesh deep purple, tender, with a rich, high-flavored 
juice. 

American Amber. — Fruit medium sized, roundish, heart-shaped; skin thin, 
smooth, light amber; delicately mottled and overspread with bright red; flesh 
tender and juicy, but not high flavored. 

Vcllozv Spanish (Bigarrcau GrafFion). — Large; pale yellow, with red cheek 
in the sun; flesh firm, juicy, and delicious; one of the best, most beautiful and 
popular of all light-colored cherries. 

Mecel, Monstreuses dc (Great Bigarrcau). — A foreign variety of the largest 
size; dark red or quite black; firm and juicy; late. 

Pontiac. — Large ; dark purplish red ; half tender, juicy, and agreeable. 

Burr's Seedling. — Large ; yellow, shaded with red ; sweet and rich ; vigorous 
and great bearer; apparently does better near the coast than in the interior. 

Oxheart. — Fruit large, obtuse, heart-shaped; skin dark red; flesh red, half 
tender, with a pleasant juice of second quality. 

Napoleon Bigarrcau (Royal Ann). — A magnificent cherry of the largest size; 
pale yellow, becoming amber in shade, richly dotted and spotted with deep red, 
and with a bright red cheek; flesh very firm, juicy and sweet. Tree a free 
grower and an enormous bearer, when properly pollinated. The great commercial 
cherry of California. 

Tradescant's Blackhcart (Elkhorn, Black Bigarrcau). — Large, heart-shaped) ; 
deep, glossy black; very solid and firm; dark purple, moderately juicy. 

Schmidt's Bigarrcau. — The largest of all the Black Bigarrcau cherries. Skin 
of a deep black color; flesh dark and very juicy, with a fine flavor. 

DUKES AND MORELLOS 

Early Richmond (Kentish). — An early, red, acid cherry; valuable for cooking 
early in the season. 

Eugenie. — Medium large ; heart-shaped ; amber red ; good quality ; early. 

Afay Duke. — An old, well-known, excellent variety; large, dark red, juicj', 
subacid, rich. 

Arch Duke. — Fruit large, obtuse, heart-shaped; bright red becoming dark; 
flesh light red, melting, juicy, rich, subacid flavor, very good; tree more upright 
and vigorous than May Duke. 

Late Duke. — Fruit large, flattened or obtuse, heart-shaped ; white, mottled 
with red, becoming rich dark red when ripe; flesh yellowish, tender, juicy; hangs 
long on the tree. 

Reme Hortense. — "It is one of the very largest of cherries; a beautiful, glossy 
red, or deep pink, when fully ripe ; heart-shaped ; a universal bearer, and when 



232 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

hanging on the tree no fruit is more beautiful ; excellent for canning, but too 
soft and juicy for shipment." — W. W. Smith. 

English Morcllo. — Large, dark red, nearly black; tender, juicy, rich, acid, pro- 
ductive and late. 

Guigne Noir Luisante (Black Spanish). — Fruit medium size, round, heart- 
shaped, glossy, blackish red; flesh reddish purple, tender, juicy, rich, acid. 

Belle Magnifique. — Fruit large, roundish, inchned to heart-shape ; skin a fine 
bright red; flesh juicy, tender, with sprightly subacid flavor; one of the best of 
its class ; a fine table fruit when fully ripe. 

Buttner's Yellow. — Medium, roundish ; clear yellow ; firm, late. 

PACIFIC COAST SEEDLINGS 

Lewclling — Black Republican (Black Oregon). — "Seedling by Seth Lewelling, 
Milwaukee, Oregon, from seed planted in 1860; first fruited in orchard in 1864. 
Widely distributed in California. Large, black, sweet, with purple flesh ; ripens 
ten days after Black Tartarian." — James Shinn. "Large, late black cherry, good 
flavor, long keeper; dries and ships well. Seems to succeed better on foothills 
than in the valley." — Robert Williamson. "Supposed to be a cross between 
Napoleon Bigarreau and Black Tartarian, having the solid flesh of the former 
and the color of the latter ; very late." — John Rock. "I am of the opinion that 
the Black Republican and Lincoln came down from the seed of the Black Eagle, 
but I have little idea of what variety they were crossed with." — Seth Lewelling. 

Bing. — Originated by Seth Lewelling, from seed of Black Republican. "Fruit 
large, dark brown or black, very fine, late ; a good shipping variety." — Seth 
Lcivelling. Tree vigorous, and foliage heavy. Fruit ripens so that trees can be 
cleaned at one picking. 

Centennial. — A seedling of Napoleon Bigarreau, raised by Mr. Henry Chap- 
man in Napa Valley, and fruited by him for the first time in 1876. Propagated 
and introduced by Leonard Coates, then of Napa, in 1885. It is larger than its 
parent, more oblate in form, and beautifully marbled and splashed with crimson 
on a pale yellow ground ; exceptionally sweet and of remarkable keeping quality. 
Described by Committee of American Pomological Society (1885) as follows: 
"Size large, slightly oblate ; amber, with dark crimson marbling ; flesh, firm, 
sweet, and rich; quality best; condition excellent (after crossing continent by 
mail), showing its good shipping qualities." The Centennial has been little 
planted recently, because of superiority of Royal Ann. 

The Oregon. — Seedling of Napoleon Bigarreau, by H. W. Prettyman, of 
East Portland, and named by Oregon State Horticultural Society in 1888; 
described as larger than Napoleon ; firm ; dark red ; "fit to eat earlier than 
Napoleon, but coming to full maturity somewhat later." Introduced in 1888 by 
W. S. Failing, Portland. 

Lambert. — Seedling of J. H. Lambert, Milwaukee, Oregon, 1887 ; presented to 
Oregon State Horticultural Society ; right to propagate sold to Oregon Nursery 
Co., 1896, and introduced by this company; very large, roundish, heart-shaped; 
stem long, slender, suture medium depth, acid; smooth, glossy, dark purplish; 
red flesh dark purplish red, firm, flavor rich, quality good. Ripens ten days to 
two weeks after Black Tartarian. 

Andrczvs. — Fruited French seedling about 1896 by C. N. Andrews, Redlands. 
Grown in mountain valley near Redlands. Apparently a fine shipping variety 
locally named after the grower. 

Paul. — Found by E. V. D. Paul, of Ukiah, on place purchased by him and 
previous owner could not account for its presence. Very large, black, mottled 
with dark red ; late ; remarkable shipping endurance demonstrated ; diploma at 
Oregon Cherry Fair, 1907. Propagated and introduced by Leonard Coates Co., 
Morgan Hill, California, 1908. 

Nonpareil. — Originated at Vaca Orchard ; a fine, black, shipping cherry, owned 
by Earl Fruit Company at Vacaville and not distributed. 

Early Burbank. — Originated by Luther Burbank ; a seedling of Early Purple 
Guigne and sold in 1903 to a group of Vacaville growers. Very early, earlier 
than its parent variety. Large, rich deep crimson, resembling Black Tartarian 
in quality. Tree medium upright grower, large leaves, prolific. 



CHAPTER XX 

THE PEACH 

Until the great prune planting passion of the decade ago the 
peach was the greatest deciduous fruit of California judged by the 
total number of trees in service. When the bloom impression went 
forth that cured prunes could be put up in sacks more cheaply than 
wheat, people took to planting prune orchards by the section all 
through the wheat districts of the great valley, and bloom planters 
even carried the trees where no one would think of planting wheat — 
cutting up shallow-clay upland sheep pastures and even yucca sand 
wastes into prune-growing colonies. Under such planting propositions 
it is little wonder our nurseries sold prune trees for twice the normal 
prices and still could not fill the demand. Figures of prune trees in 
orchards rushed far beyond the peach figures. This over-planting 
of prunes naturally brought loss and disappointment, and interest 
turned again to peach planting, so that now the peach has secured 
notable advance beyond the prune, as shown by statistics in Chapter 
VI. During the last few years the peach has had the call, the nurseries 
have had difficulty in keeping up with the planting demand for certain 
varieties, which will be discussed later, and the peach has demonstrated 
its right to attain again its old position by possession of a greater 
acreage than is given to any other deciduous fruit. 

The peach was the first fruit to ripen on the improved trees 
brought here by the early American settlers, and the magnificence 
of the peach was consequently the key-note of the refrain which 
greeted the ears of the world in which the California gold cry was 
ringing early in the fifties. In fact, the gold from the mine and the 
gold from the tree were very nearly related. In old Coloma, where 
gold was discovered, there was a peach tree which bore four hundred 
and fifty peaches in 1854, which sold for $3.00 each, or $1,350 for the 
crop of the one tree, and in 1855, six trees bore one thousand one 
hundred peaches, which sold for $1.00 each. Some of these pioneer 
trees are said to be still living and bearing fruit. 



LONGEVITY OF THE PEACH IN CALIFORNIA 

There are many other facts to establish the claim that the peach 
tree, if planted in a suitable soil and situation and cared for with 
any devotion and skill, is not a short-lived tree in California. California 
is too young to mark limits of duration, but there are instances 
in the earliest-settled places in the State, where peach trees above 
fifty years old are still vigorous and productive. Some trees have, 
in fact, gone along in thrift until they have a bark below which looks 
like that of a fores! tree, and framework of main branches sound 
and stalwart throughout because they have never been allowed to 
233 



234 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

sunburn until protected by their own roughness, and have never been 
pruned with an axe, and never lost a limb no had a wound in to 
which decay could penetrate and descend to the root. When the peach 
has a fair chance in its aerial parts and is in a soil which favors health 
of the roots, it shows itself to be very long-lived in California. When 
trees break to pieces and show decay wounds, they are in bad places, 
and have suffered through natural stress or have been weakened by 
cultural errors. 

In favorable soils the peach is stronger and longer lived in the 
root than in the top, and sometimes triumphs over neglect by discarding 
old, wind-broken, sun-burned and bark-bound branches, and forms a 
new head of its own. Such renewal is sometimes very rapid. In the 
interior valley new shoots on a cut-back Muir tree have grown twelve 
feet in one season, with a thickness of one and one-half inches at the 
base. Such shoots will bear the following summer and proper selection 
should be made from them to shape the new tree — all others being 
removed. Cutting back for a new head kills some trees, probably 
those which through hardship are weak in the root, but most peach 
trees take to it kindly. 

It is through this disposition to renewal of good wood that the 
intelligent system of pruning which is now prevalent, ministers to 
the longevity as well as the profitability of the tree, aiding it to con- 
stantly renew its youth by restraining its exuberance, and at the same 
time furnishing it sound new wood on which to grow its fruit foliage. 
But while these are facts, there is some difference in opinion as to the 
point at which an old tree becomes less valuable than a young one. 
Along the Sacramento River some count about a dozen good crops as 
the limit, and thus replace the trees when about fifteen years of age. 
This is a point which may vary greatly, according to local conditions. 

Early Productiveness. — Quite as important as the longevity of 
the peach tree are the facts of its rapid growth and early produc- 
tiveness. It is the first of our fruit trees to attain size and yield a 
*)rofitable crop. In localities best suited to its growth it will mature 
some fruit the second summer in the orchard if the small shoots are 
not pruned away from the main branches, and during the third summer 
averages of forty to fifty pounds per tree have been secured from 
considerable acreages. These facts are stated to show what the peach 
of good variety may do in a good situation and soil and with the best 
of care. Of course they are not to be taken as average results, although 
greater than those given are sometimes attained. For example, on the 
rich, alluvial land near Visalia, an Admiral Dewey yearling tree 
planted in March, 1904, had in October, 1905, attained these dimen- 
sions : Near the ground the trunk was eleven and three-quarter inches 
in circumference, branching two feet from the ground it had four main 
branches, each seven inches in circumference ; height of tree, twelve 
feet ; spread of branches, ten feet. It grew near a crack in a cement 
ditch and so had all the moisture it could use, and being in a free, 
open soil was not impaired by standing water. 



PEACH REGIONS OF CALIFORNIA 235 

As for possible productiveness of the peach, one Susquehanna 
tree in Kern county yielded twenty-seven forty-five pound picking- 
boxes — twelve hundred and fifty pounds in one crop — about four times 
as much as good trees may average. 

LOCALITIES FOR THE PEACH 

The peach has a wide range in California, and finds many districts 
suited to it in the several ways in which the trade delights it it. 
As compared with the apricot, the peach thrives in the sheltered 
valleys of the district north of the bay and west of the Coast Range, 
in which the apricot is of little commercial moment ; it yields those 
peerlessly beautiful "mountain peaches" from one to two thousand 
feet higher in the Sierra foothills than the apricot can be trusted ; it 
goes everywhere in the lower foothills and over the great valleys that 
the apricot will go, and beyond it also, because it is less restless in 
the spring and escapes some frosts which injure apricots. Counted 
from trees in orchard the peach is more than three times as great as 
the apricot. 

Nearly every county in California reports the possession of peach 
trees. Above an elevation of four thousand feet on the sides of the 
Sierra Nevada, they may be subject to winter killing, and lower still 
the careful choice of situation has to be made to avoid frost at blooming 
time — the peach in such places being subjected to some dangers 
which beset it in the eastern States. Below these points, however, 
lies the great fruit belt of the foothills of the Sierra, where the peach 
is the chief fruit grown and its excellence is proverbial. Size, beauty, 
richness, delicacy of flavor and firmness, which endures carriage to 
the most distant markets, are all characteristics of the foothill peaches 
of California. 

In the great interior valleys of the State wherever proper condition 
of soil and water supply can be found, the peach also thrives, the tree 
making a wonderfully quick and large growth, and the fruit attaining 
great size. The San Joaquin Valley is the greatest peach district 
in the State. 

In the small valleys on the west of the great valley and on the 
eastern slopes of the Coast Range, there are also extensive areas 
suited to the peach, and sheltered places on the eastern and western 
edges of the Sacramento Valley have produced the earliest fruit for 
a long series of years. Recently the contest for the earliest fruit 
of these districts, with the foothill district on the east side of the 
Sacramento Valley and special locations in the upper San Joaquin 
Valley, has been quite close. 

In the coast valleys, opening upon San Francisco Bay and the 
Pacific Ocean, the peach is also a leading fruit. Its success is greatest, 
however, where good shelter is had from direct coast influences. Even 
where open to these influences, good peaches can be grown by choosing 
the smaller range of^ varieties, which do well by protecting the trees 
from harsh winds, and by seeking elevation above depressed valleys, 
whose frosts are frequent. The occurrence of curl-leaf is a factor 



236 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

of much importance, which will be considered presently. In the coast 
counties north of the Russian River Valley the danger to the peach 
from unfavorable atmospheric conditions increases as one goes north- 
ward, and situations must be chosen with greater care. And yet by 
such exercise of care, peaches for home use and local markets can 
be successfully grown. 

South of San Francisco Bay the coast influences soften as you 
proceed southward, and the peach draws nearer to the ocean, choos- 
ing, however, elevations and avoiding broad, wind-swept areas and 
narrow defiles where drafts and fogs are frequent. At considerable 
elevations, as on the Santa Cruz Mountains, some varieties of peaches 
are notably excellent. The general rule holds with the peach, as 
with other fruits, that coast influences retard ripening and the season 
of the fruit is late. 

In some valleys and at elevations in southern California the 
peach is largely grown and high excellence attained while on the 
mesas and plains there is often too high a temperature which starts 
growth out of season and follows with a dormacy and die-back when 
the tree ought to be most active. It has recently been demonstrated 
that varieties like Lukens' Honey, descended from the Peen-to or 
flat peach of China, resists such irregularities better than the common 
sorts which are largely of Persian origin. 



SOILS AND EXPOSURES FOR THE PEACH 

Through the suitability of soils for the peach can be somewhat 
extended by the choice of stock for budding upon, as will be considered 
presently, its range of soils is narrower than that of the apricot. 
The best peach soils are light, deep, sandy loams, rather dry than 
moist, but under all circumstances well drained. It will thrive on 
land with a considerable mixture of coarse sand or gravel, providing 
it contains also needed elements of fertility ; for the rapid growth and 
heavy fruitage of the peach requires abundant nutrition. Though 
it accepts coarse materials both in soil and subsoil, it relishes fine 
sediment and perhaps finds no more congenial location than in the 
deep, sandy loam, or sedimentary deposit bordering the creek beds 
of our warm valleys, and will send its roots deep to secure long life 
and abundant fruitage. Such soils, whether along existing streams 
or deposited by prehistoric water courses, which have left their mark 
by the elevated ridges of rich sediment above the prevailing valley 
soils, are warm, deep, and thoroughly drained, and delight the peach. 
Peaches are grown very successfully on what is called hardpan in 
some parts of Fresno County, providing the hardpan is blasted as 
described in Chapter XI. In these situations the hardpan is near the 
surface and has a deep free soil below it into which the roots can 
extend. 

At elevations on the hillsides there are free loams which result 
from decomposition of the underlying rocks, and on them the peach 
thrives, both where the soils themselves are deep and where the 



SOILS SUITABLE FOR PEACH GROWING 237 

underlying rock is loose and open, permeable by roots and affording 
escape for water. Success has been reported even when holes are 
partly excavated in these rotten rocks as in the soft sand rock on 
the hills east of \'aca Valley, or in the broken chalk rock in what 
is called Blackburn Gulch, near Santa Cruz. The superior warmth 
of such soils is supposed to minister to earlier ripening of the fruit, 
though the escape from cold air by elevation is no doubt a greater 
factor to the end. 

The influences of comparatively slight difference in elevation is 
very marked. E. R. Thurber, of Pleasant Valley, Solano County, 
had for many years a plat of peach trees on a natural terrace about 
seventy-five feet higher than the general level of his orchard. On 
the terrace peaches ripen and are disposed of before the same 
varieties ripen in the orchard below. 

As in the valley a short distance to water is to be avoided, so 
on the hills too great percolation from higher levels is undesirable. 
Of course, natural defects of this kind can be corrected by adequate 
under-drainage. 

Still, though such be the general soil conditions best suited to the 
peach, the tree can be well grown for home use or local markets 
on somewhat heavier soil, providing there is a good drainage, but 
drainage must be insisted upon, for thousands of trees have perished 
because planted in retentive soils without drainage. Alkaline soils 
which are usually rather heavy should, however, be avoided as the 
peach, when grown on its own roots, seems to be of all fruits most 
sensitive to alkali. 

As to exposures for the peach the same rules hold as for other 
fruits which are liable to injury when in bloom or young foliage. 
Thus low places where cold air settles should be avoided, also low 
gulches through which cold drafts prevail. In frosty situations an 
incline away from the morning sun will often allow the trees to escape 
serious injury. 

PROPAGATION AND PLANTING 

The chapter on propagation gives the general method of growing 
and budding peach seedlings. In selecting pits, preference is usually 
given to those from strong-grownig, yellow peaches, at least for 
working on the same colored fruits, while others use pits of the 
Morris White, others the Strawberry, and others still will use only 
pits from vigorous seedling trees. In this State the peach is usually 
so healthy and vigorous, and the "yellows" not known, and less care 
may be needed in selecting i)its ; still there is certainly nothing lost 
by making every effort for a good stock. 

The hard-shell sweet almond has long been used as a stock for 
the peach. It is held that it gives a hardier, stronger root, in dry 
soils especially. 

When it is desir?d to grow the peach on moister soil than suits 
its own roots, the St. Julian plum may be used. The Myrobalan 



238 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

has been used to some extent, but experience generally does not favor 
any plum stock for the peach and our largest propagators have 
abandoned its use. 

The so-called "peach-almond" has often been urged as a stock for 
the peach but has been little used, probably because the straight peach 
and straight almond are so satisfactory and available. It is a fruit 
having the pit of a peach but the pericarp of an almond, that is tough 
and tasteless and disposed to split like an almond hull. Early in the 
fifties a chance hybrid of this sort appeared in the nursery of W. B. 
West, of Stockton, and its pits were used for nursery seedlings which, 
when budded to the peach, produced good trees. Trees bearing the 
peach-almond are found here and there over the State. Mr. Burbank 
has produced a hybrid of the Wager peach and the Languedoc almond. 

Distance in Orchard. — Distance observed in planting peach 
orchards differs greatly, according to the views of different growers. 
Regarding the peach as a catch crop to plant between apricot, pear, 
cherry, walnut, fig or other slower-growing, larger trees, the trees 
may be set comparatively close ; that is, with the latter trees at thirty 
to forty feet, and alternate rows of peach planted quincunx, and to be 
removed at the end of ten to fifteen years. If the peach is to have the 
ground to itself, some planters plant at eighteen feet in equilateral 
triangles, or twenty to twenty-four feet on the squares, the present 
tendency of the peach, as with other trees, being to give more room 
than was the custom a few years ago. 

Age of. Trees. — In planting peach orchards yearling trees are 
generally preferred, though June buds are freely used and more are 
planted in dormant bud than of any other kind of fruit trees. The 
reason for this is easily found in the disposition of the peach to make 
a tree the first year from the bud. It springs almost at once into a 
full outfit of laterals. Some growers employ this disposition to form 
a head the first year in the nursery. When the bud has grown out 
eighteen inches, pinch it off at the top and force out laterals, which 
make long growth the same season. When planted out in orchard the 
following winter, cut back to ten or twelve inches. In this any one can 
get a yearling with the equivalent of a two-year-old head on it. The 
common practice is, however, to let the growth from the bud proceed 
as it chooses, and when the yearling is set in orchard, cut back to a 
single bud the laterals which are desired to form the head and remov- 
ing others. If there is a dormant bud on the stem where a branch is 
desired and it is obstinate in not starting, a cross-cut through the 
bark just above it may concentrate pressure and force it out. Proper 
starting of the young tree is promoted by cutting away cleanly all 
laterals which have grown from stem-buds. In such cutting back the 
dormant buds at the base of such a lateral should be preserved. The 
development of form from a yearling branched in the nursery is illus- 
trated in chapter on pruning. 

Planting Dormant Buds. — The chapter on planting describes 
the planting of yearling trees. The lifting of dormant buds from the 
home nursery and planting in orchard is described by P. W. Butler, of 
Placer County, as follows : 



STARTING DORMAXT-liUU PEACH TREES 239 

Have the ground prepared and stakes placed in position in the orchard in 
early February, if possible, and begin the planting at once, while the trees are 
in dormant bud. Take no more trees from the nursery than can be planted in 
half a day. Plow a furrow on each side of the row, six inches from the trees, 
turning the soil from them, then two men with heavy spades or shovels, one on 
each side of the tree, can readily take it up without breaking many of the roots; 
and what are so broken should be smoothly trimmed with a sharp knife. Place 
the trees in a tub of water, near where they are to be planted, and take them 
from it only a few at a time. Put them in a basket or box and cover with wet 
sack, that they may be kept moist until placed in the ground. 

On planting, place the bud one inch below the level of the ground, but do 
not cover it until after it has grown to the height of a few inches. The stock 
should be cut off at the bud with a thin, sharp knife (and not with shears, as is 
often done, as the latter method will sometimes split the tree), when it will take 
in moisture and not heal readily. 

Some g^rowers do not cut back the young seedling tree until growth 
has started out well on the dormant bud, girdling the bark above the 
bud to force its growth. The tender shoot is protected somewhat by 
the old stem to which it can be tied. The removal of the old stem 
should not be too long delayed, for the wound by its amputation should 
heal over the first summer. 

Rather more care is needed in handling dormant buds both in 
planting and in their young life in the orchard. Lookout must be kept 
for suckers and against injury in cultivation. Success with dormant 
buds is notable. In good hands they commonly outgrow yearlings 
planted at the same time, and the percentage of loss from failure of 
the bud to start is very small. Of course, every bud should be ex- 
amined before planting, to see that it has a healthy color. 

In the selection of peach trees for planting, a clean, healthy root 
only should be taken. During recent years there have been a good 
many young roots affected with knots or swellings from some obscure 
cause. Such trees should be burned. If planted, the knot sometimes 
grows to an enormous size and little or no top growth is made. 



PRUNING THE PEACH 

As has already been stated, the peach will carry a top of great 
fruiting longevity if the grower will do justice to the tree by regular 
shortening of the growth and forcing out new wood, upon which alone 
fruit is found. Not only does regular pruning do this, but it promotes 
longevity and vigor in the framework of the tree upon which these 
bearing shoots come. Left unpruned, the peach soon becomes bark- 
bound, and the bark itself becomes hardened and brittle. Lower shoots 
are apt to dwindle, and the tree becomes an umbrella of foliage and 
fruit held aloft by bare branches bark-burned by the sun, invaded by 
borers, exuding gum, covered with moss and lichens — a picture of 
distress and unprofitability because its owner docs not give the tree a 
chance to re-invigorate itself with large fresh leaves from the new 
wood which alone can carry them. 

Vase-Form with Continuous Leaders. — The common vase form 
of the peach tree is amply described in Chapter XII, where it is used 



240 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

to illustrate the development of the prevailing California method of 
shaping fruit trees. Recently there has appeared a different form 
which, though not new, is being given local names. It consists in build- 
ing the tree with continuous ribs or leaders, a variation in the vase-form 
which has been used in Europe for centuries, perhaps. The following 
very clear account of it is prepared by Mr. C. F. Collins, horticultural 
commissioner of Tulare County : 

Another method of vase form, known locally as the Sims method, has been 
practiced for many years by William Sims, of Farmerville, and is now practiced 
by the California Fruit Canners' Association in its large orchard near there, 
by Hunt Bros, in their orchards near Exeter, and by many individual growers 
in that vicinity. The trees are cut back to 18 inches at planting, and at the 
first winter's pruning four or five of the most upright-growing branches are left 
to form the head. These are cut to a uniform height and as great a length 
as the season's growth will allow. On a vigorous tree this will be about 6 feet. 
All laterals are removed from these. 

The second winter retain one strong upright branch emerging from near the 
end of each branch of previous season's growth, and remove all laterals from 
the tree larger than a lead pencil. Toy these main branches at a uniform 
height of 10 or 12 feet from the ground, according to the growth made. Some- 
times a lateral is allowed to grow from, one of these main limbs to fill in an 
open space in the outline of the tree. At the end of the second winter's 
pruning, we have a low-headed tree with four or five main branches 10 or 12 
feet long, and so upright that the tree is only 6 or 7 feet across the top. Enough 
small laterals are left for abundant shade. After this each season remove all 
large laterals, leaving only the small fruiting wood, and cut this back to the 
required amount. 

Some of the claims made for this system are that no propping is required 
to support the limbs, and as these are so nearly perpendicular in growth the 
orchard is more easily worked close to the trees and the trees are more easily 
kept down to a proper height than when pruned by the ordinary method. This 
system certainly works admirably in the sections where it is used, and in my 
opinion, on true peach soil, where the trees are vigorous and grow large, 
strong limbs, it is far superior to the old vase form, but it is a question if it would 
prove as satisfactory in many of our orchards where the trees make a more 
feeble growth, and especially with a tree of as slender growth as the Muir. Of 
course, with a less vigorous tree it might require three or even four years to 
get the tree to a proper height by this method. 

Special Points on Peach Pruning. — Whatever plan for low, 
vase-form be adopted, there are points which should always be borne 
in mind as deductions from the experience of successful peach growers 
in all parts of the State. A few instances will be given : 

"The peach, fruiting only on wood of the previous year's growth, bears fruit 
farther away from the body of the tree each year, and the small shoots of from 
one-eighth to three sixteenths in diameter begin to decline when the fruit is 
removed. To have healthy growth, all of these small branches must be removed 
the first winter following their fruiting, when there is a greater tendency to 
form small new growths, which may fruit the following season. In the peach, 
it will seldom be found necessary to remove any interior branches, except suck- 
ers, until they have produced a crop, when they will begin to decline and should 
be removed. 

"I would certainly not cut peach trees back less than one-half of the new 
growth in the winter pruning, and our trees are getting too large for their age 
even with that amount of pruning. This has suggested, in other localities, sum- 
mer pruning or shortening in, with success in some places. So far my own expe- 
rience is favorable. It will be noticed on trees kept growing rapidly that the 
fruit buds are near the ends of the shoots, and it seems to take away too many 



PRUNING BEARING PEACH TREES 241 

of these buds to cut back onc-Iialf in tlic winter pruning, but by cutting back 
about one-hall the new growth in August, fruit buds arc developed lower down, 
and where they would not be developed witiiout the summer pruning." — 
H. Culbcrtson, El Cajon, San Diego County. 

"Prune the peach every year, cutting back and thinning out the center, using 
great care not to cut out too many of the little fruit shoots of new wood growing 
on the main branches, but removing the slender branches of the old wood, 
leaving as many branches of the new growth as the tree will support. In this 
case judgment must be used as to what the tree will support. The soil may be 
wet or dry, rich or poor, the grower must be the judge. To grow small fruit, 
prune lightly; to grow large fruit, prune with care and judgment. To get this 
judgment you must have some practical experience. I prefer doing the work 
when the sap begins moving in thd spring of the year. All cuts heal over better 
then and the pruner can see how the buds are setting and use his own judgment 
as to how much wood he wants cut out." — R. C. Kclls, Yuba City, Sutter County. 

"Cutting back the peach must be more severe, as the growth of the new wood 
diminishes. Not more than live or six fruit buds should be left on a shoot, 
and if the fruit all sets, it must be also thinned. The trees should be trained 
low and their vigor encouraged by permitting a reasonable amount of young 
shoots to grow around the lower part of the main limbs. When this method 
is continued systematically every season, the trees will bear large crops of fruit, 
of good quality, for many years. When they are allowed to overbear for one 
or two seasons' the fruit will decrease in size, and soon become almost worth- 
less; the trees will be enfeebled, and in consequence very liable to be attacked 
by disease. The only thing to be done in this case is to cut off the whole top 
of the tree, allowing it to form a new head. I have seen old peach orchards 
thus renovated, and the results arc often very flattering, but it is far better not 
to allow them to get into a condition where this desperate remedy is necessary." 
— Leonard Coates, Morganhill. 

Cutting Back the Peach Is not Shearing. — Some undertake the 
annual pruning of the peach by a shearing process, treating a fruit 
tree as one woukl a hedge — cutting everything to a hne. There has 
been a good deal of this done in California, but it is wrong neverthe- 
less. Shortening in the new growth of the peach each year is a proper 
practice. It is the first step toward preventing over-bearing of small, 
unmarketable fruit and saving the tree from profitless and injurious 
effort. Thinning the shoots by removing all but one when two or 
three start from the same point is also working toward large fruit and 
regular bearing in the tree. This shortening and thinning of the new 
wood must also be followed by thinning of the young fruit just after 
the natural drop and it is .seen that the tree carries too many. Proper 
pruning can not be done by shearing because it is apt to shorten the 
strong shoots too much and the weak shoots too little. Each shoot 
must be cut by itself according to its growth and its ability to carry 
more or less fruit. Shearing, too, does not thin out the shoots but con- 
tinually multiplies them until the tree is full of brush as a hedge. 



THINNING PEACHES 

Thinning out fruit on the peach tree is not only the secret of ob- 
taining good, marketable fruit, but joins hands with pruning in pre- 
serving the health and future production of the tree. The importance 
of thinning has been ufged in a previous chapter, but the following is a 
very strong statement, by ]\Ir. Culbertson: 



242 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

In my own experience there is no single operation in connection with fruit 
growing of more importance than thinning. The past season, in order to test 
the difference in expense of preparing large and small peaches for drying, I 
timed the cutting, and found it took double the time ; hence, double the expense, 
which meant a difference of about $15 per ton of dried fruit. Add to this a 
difference of two cents per pound in price makes $55 per ton. Suppose an 
orchard under good treatment produces a ton of peaches to the acre, then $55 
would represent the difference in profits. Unthinned or small fruit is certainly 
undesirable. 

As to how much thinning should be done there are diverse opinions. Some 
take off one-half, others three-fourths. Some growers thin to meet a certain 
ideal, but find it difficult to explain in words. The common rule of leaving a 
specimen of fruit every four or six inches is a safe rule ; that means many must 
come off. Different conditions of soils, climates, and irrigation vary the amount 
to thin out, more or less. More may be left where the tree is on land giving a 
strong, vigorous growth. 

In thinning peaches I have been practicing a method that gives good results 
and is easily learned. The peach bears on three sizes of branches, that are one- 
eighth, three-sixteenths, and one-fourth of an inch in diameter. The first has two 
peaches, the second three, and the third four ; this, of course, after there has 
been a judicious course of pruning and the trees under irrigation; trees on dry 
land should have only one-half as many left. To reach this result often a dozen 
may have to come off, allowing only two to remain. The more there are the 
greater the necessity for thinning. 

The time for thinning peaches is as soon as one can be sure which are likely 
to remain on the tree and which will drop off of their own accord. 



IRRIGATION OF THE PEACH 

As the peach is the greatest deciduous fruit of the interior valleys 
and foothills, it is also the deciduous fruit which is chiefly grown with 
irrigation. Most of the specific conclusions set forth in Chapter XV 
are based upon experience with the peach and the reader is advised to 
consider them from that point of view. One of the most important 
points of success in irrigating the peach is to use enough water earlier 
in its growth so that application need not be made within about three 
weeks of ripening. Enough water before that will usually insure size 
on properly thinned trees and the withholding of water near ripening 
will secure good quality. After the crop is gathered, irrigation can be 
resumed to continue the late summer growth for next year's fruit buds 
and to save the tree from injury during the long autumn drouth. Very 
great disappointment in thrift and bearing of peaches has resulted from 
lack of irrigation in the early autumn in the interior valley. Even in 
places where the trees make a good crop by rainfall or underflow, there 
may be great injury to the tree by inadequate soil moisture during the 
remainder of the growing season. 



WORKING OVER PEACH TREES 

The fashion in peaches changes from time to time according to the 
demands of the canners or the market for dried fruit. The grower 
often finds varieties which he first selected, less healthy, less pro- 



WORKING-OVER OLD PEACH TREES 243 

ductive, or, for other reason, less desirable than others. There is, 
therefore, often occasion for working over trees. Budding if often 
resorted to, buds being successfully set in quite old wood, providing 
buds from well-matured wood are taken. Wood buds from young 
trees unaccompanied by fruit are best, but because of greater certainty 
of securing the variety desired, it is common to take wood and fruit 
buds together from bearing trees. A larger cut of bud and adjacent 
bark is taken when working in old bark than for use on seedlings. 
When a branch is budded, it is sometimes broken at a distance beyond 
the bud and allowed to hang, the idea being to furnish the bud some 
but not too much sap. Some growers thus bud and break part of the 
branches, allowing others to remain unworked, to maintain the growing 
processes of the tree. These branches and those in which buds have 
not taken, are cut off and grafter the following spring. The almond 
is successfully grafted over with the peach, and this course has been 
followed with thousands of unproductive almonds. 

Grafting the Peach. — Grafting the peach by the ordinary top- 
grafting with a cleft graft seldom succeeds. A side graft with 
saw and knife is better. It is described by J. W. Mills, formerly of 
the University Branch Experiment Stations, in southern California, as 
follows : 

Saw grafting is rapidly taking the place of cleft grafting, for it does away 
with all difficulties arising from splitting, and there is no cavity left in the heart 
of the limb or tree. The process is to saw off the limb at the desired place as in 
cleft grafting, then saw across the corner and down the side at an angle of about 
45 degrees and trim out with a sharp knife. Place the knife blade a little to 
one side of the saw cut, a little farther from the edge at the top than at the 
bottom, and by pressing on the knife the whole sides of the crevice will be 
trimmed smoothly at one stroke; this operation repeated on the other side of 
the saw cut will make a neat notch in the end of a solid limb. By cutting a 
little deeper from the saw cut at the top than at the bottom, and if the amateur 
does not trim his scion at the right angle, he can insert it gently in the crevice or 
notch and see just where to trim. If he is so slow that the fresh cut shows 
signs of discoloration, he can make a fresh surface by placing his knife parallel 
to the edges and shaving off a thin slice. He still retains the same angle, but the 
scion will set a little deeper, which is no objection. By cutting a thin layer off 
the top of the stump next to the notch will show exactly where the inside layer 
of bark is. The inside of the scion must be even with the inside layer of the 
bark of the stump or limb that is being grafted. If the scion is inclined slightly 
out or in at the top, it will make a correct union at some point and be sure to 
grow. If the inclination is very slight the union will extend over considerable 
length, and will make a much better start than if the union is at only one point, 
owing to the enlarged surface through which the sap is transmitted. One of 
the most important points in grafting is to have good wax and go over the grafts 
a few days after they arc put in and rewax them. 



DISEASES OF THE PEACH 

Curl-Leaf. — The most prevalent trouble with the peach tree in 
California is the curl-lcaf. It was noticed from the first planting of 
peach trees by Americans, nearly sixty years ago, and free conjecture 
as to its cause wis indulged in until it was shown to be a specific fungus, 



244 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

and its prevention by washes of fungicidal character demonstrated. 
The treatment will be described in the chapter on tree diseases. The 
facts of its occurrence may be stated as follows : 

Curl-leaf is much more prevalent in some sections than others, and 
in one place than another in the same section, and some sections are 
practically free from it. Some varieties are much more subject to 
curl-leaf than others ; generally speaking, some curl nearly everywhere, 
others curl in one place and not in another, others are practically free 
from curl in all situations. 

Curl-leaf occurs in various degrees. Mild cases do not seem to 
injure either tree or fruit; severe cases destroy the fruit and sometimes 
the tree itself. The disease is almost always at its height when the 
young fruit is about the size of small peas. If the curl is "bad," the 
fruit will fall to the ground, there not being healthy leaves enough to 
afford the required support. If, however, the curl is moderate and 
partial, only a part and sometimes none of the fruit will be lost. The 
disease, as is well known, is of brief duration, say twelve to twenty 
days, after which the trees resume a healthy appearance in every 
respect, and if the fruit has been able to survice the ordeal, it also 
appears to grow and become as perfect as if no check had been given 
to its growth. But it is better to save the tree the burden of a new 
foliage growth. 

Mildew. — This disease, which occurs in the form of whitish 
felted patches on leaf and twig early in the spring, and finally affects 
the fruit, has long been troublesome in this State, and occurs on certain 
susceptible varieties in many localities from the coast to the Sierra 
foothills. Observation in this State has fully affirmed the statement of 
Downing, that the serrate, glandless-leaved varieties are liable, and 
those with good glands on the leaf stems are free. 

The conclusion would be that where mildew prevails, varieties with 
serrate, glandless leaves should be avoided. But it has been found that 
some glandless-leaved varieties, although subject to mildew, resist 
curl-leaf. Therefore it may be worth while to combat the mildew. 
This has been done effectually by treatment which will be described in 
a later chapter. 

As with curl-leaf, mildew is prevalent some years and slight in 
others. 

The most serious disease which has thus far stricken the peach in 
California is locally known as the "peach blight," the work of a shot- 
hole fungus (coryncum) . This also has been satisfactorily checked by 
spraying, as will be described in the Chapter on Diseases of Trees and 
Vines. 

A common trouble of the peach known as "spHt-pit," has recently 
been studied by the California Experiment Station and the tentative 
conclusion has been reached that split-pits are physiological phenomena 
and not caused by disease germs. Whether this abnormal growth is 
due to weakness of variety or to cultural conditions is not determined. 
It is true that varieties differ in amount of splitting, and selection is 
being made to some extent on that basis. 



TABULATED STATEMENTS 



245 



Peach Varieties Approved by California Growers. 



VARIETIES. 

Alexander 

Amsdcn 

Albrigln 

Bergen 

Bilycu 

Briggs' May 

California Qing 

Decker 

Early Crawford 

Early York 

Elberta 

Foster 

George Fourth 

George's Late Cling 

Gen. Bidwell 

Globe 

Golden Cling (Sellers).. 

Hale's Farly 

Heath Cling 

Henrietta (Levy's) 

Honest Abe 

Honey (Lnkcns') 

Imperial 

Indian Blood 

Jones's Large Early . . . . 

La Grange 

Late Crawford 

Lemon Cling 

Lovell 

May Flower 

McDevitt Cling 

McClish Cling 

McKevitt Cling 

Mary's Choice 

Morris's White 

Muir 

Newhall 

Nicholl's Cling 

Oldmixon Free 

Orange Cling 

Peen-to 

Persian Cling 

Phillips's Cling 

Piquet's Late 

Runyon's Orange Cling.. 

Salway 

Smock 

Snow 

St. John 

Strawberry 

Stump 

Susquehanna 

Triumph 

Tuskcna (Tuscan) 

Wheatland 

Wylic Cling 

Yellow Tuscany , 



Upper 


Central 


Interior 


Mountain 


California 


coast 


coast 


valley and 


valley 


Southern 


valleys. 


valleys. 


foothill. 


region. 


Coast. 



** 
** 






** 
** 
** 



* 



* 



* 
** 

* 



* 
** 
*1t 



* 
* 

♦ 

** 
** 
** 



* 

** 

* 



* 
♦* 

** 

* 



** 









*Jntl'cates that the variety is approved in the region designated. 
Most highly commended. 



246 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



VARIETIES OF THE PEACH 

Nearly all varieties of the peach have been tried in California, and, 
as with Other fruits, it has been found that varieties must be chosen 
with reference to their success in special locations. Choice also has 
to be made according to the purpose of the grower, whether for early 
marketing, for sale to canners, for drying, or distant shipment or for 
late marketing. As with apples, there is little use of planting early 
varieties (unless it be for home or local use) except in very early 
regions. An early peach from a late region is killed by competition 
with better middle season sorts from the earlier regions. 

Dates of Ripening of Leading Varieties. — The relative ripening 
of a large number of peach varieties, as noted at the University Experi- 
ment Station, at Pomona, will be useful to planters in determining 
proper succession of varieties, although of course the exact dates will 
not widely apply. 



VARIETY. First Flower. Full Flower. 

Briggs' Red May March 4 March 24 

Amsden's June March 8 March 25 

Alexander March 17 March 31 

Large Early York March 4 March 18 

Yellow St. John March 4 March 12 

Crawford's Early March 2 March 15 

Foster March 4 March 15 

Oldmixon Free March 7 March 18 

Morris White March 4 March 15 

Muir March 8 March 23 

Susquehanna March 4 March 14 

Crawford's Late March 2 March 14 

Newhall March 4 March 14 

Runyon's Orange Cling March 2 March 14 

California Cling March 2 March 16 

Stump the World March 2 March 16 

Lovell Feb. 28 March 9 

Nichols' Orange Cling March 4 March 14 

Seller's Cling March 2 March 14 

McDevitt's Cling March 2 March 18 

McKevitt's Cling March 2 March 19 

Wilkin's Cling March 3 March 14 

Indian Blood March 5 March 25 

Yellow Tuscany Cling March 5 March 19 

Lemon Cling March 14 April 1 

Smock's Late Free March 4 March 18 

Picquet's Late March 5 March 18 

Staley's California March 2 March 15 

Henrietta CLevy's) March 6 March 15 

Heath's Cling March 7 March 14 

Salway March 7 March 9 



Ripe. 

June 16 

June ] 7 

June 17 

July 15 

July 17 

July 21 

July 21 

July 2o 

Aug. 3 

Aug. 5 

Aug. 5 

Aug. 8 

Aug. 8 

Aug. 8 

Aug. 12 

Aug. 12 

Aug. 13 

Aug. 14 

Aug. 14 

Aug. 16 

Aug. 19 

Aug. 20 

Aug. 20 

Aug. 21 

Aug. 21 

Aug. 28 

Sept. 1 

Sept. 6 

Sept. 15 

Sept. 15 

Sept. 18 



In an early region one can plant early, middle, and late varieties 
to advantage, and thus secure a very long-fruiting season. The peach 
season in interior districts begins at the first of June with the Alexan- 
der, and continues to the end of Nevember with local seedlings — giving 
six months of peaches. Of course, the very early and very late sorts 
are only of use for marketing as table fruit. The most important series 



DESCRIPTIONS OF POPULAR PEACHES 247 

is a fine succession of mid-season peaches suitable either for canning, 
drying, or distant shipment. Such a selection can be made from the 
tables and descriptions which will be given later. 

Color is a most important item in the peach. While canners and 
Eastern shippers use the beautiful white peaches to advantage, the 
fashion for canning and drying is now strong in support of the yellow- 
fleshed clingstone varieties. The yellow freestone peaches are also in 
greatest demand. The color about the pit is also an important point. 
Canners demand a peach, whether white or yellow, which is almost 
free from color at the pit. because the extraction of the red color dyes 
the juice; in drying, the demand just now is for a yellow peach with a 
red center, because the colors give the dried fruit a more attractive 
appearance. Of course there is a market for dried white peaches but 
the preference is for the yellow. 



PEACHES APPROVED IN CALIFORNIA 

The following are the peaches chiefly grown in California, arranged 
approximately in the order of ripening: 

Brifigs' Red May (California'). — Originated as a chance seedling in nursery 
row, on the farm of John G. Briggs, on the Feather River, about one mile from 
Yuba City, about 1870. It was found to be about ten days earlier than the Early 
Tillotson, which was then the stand-by for an early peach. Fruit medium to 
large, round; white skin, with rich, red cheek; partially free, a standard early 
variety; subject to mildew. 

Jones' Large Early (New York). — Large, roundish, flattened, white with 
deep crimson. 

Alexander (Illinois). — Most widely grown as best early variety. Fruit 
medium to large; greenish white, nearly covered with deep red; flesh firm, juicy, 
and sweet ; bears transportation well ; pit is partly free. 

Triumph (Georgia). — Medium sized, early, yellow, partial cling; very good. 

Amsdcn (Missouri). — Resembles preceding, but averages smaller; claimed by 
some to be slightly earlier; rather less liable to curl-leaf. 

Honey (Lukens). — Medium, oblong pointed, white mottled carmine; very 
sweet ; related to Pcen-to. 

Peen-to. — Flat peach or saucer peach of China; good in Southern California. 

Early Imperial (California). — Originated by \V. W. Smith, Vacaville, and 
planted to secure a yellow freestone earlier or larger than St. John. Most 
growers find it no improvement on St. John. 

Yellotv St. John (New Orleans). — Earliest yellow peach; averages smaller 
than Yellow Crawford, but classed as large; roundish, orange yellow with deep 
red check; juicy, sweet and high flavored; freestone. 

Hale's Early (Ohio). — Medium to large, nearly round; skin greenish, mostly 
covered and mottled with red when ripe; flc^h white, melting, juicy, rich and 
sweet; fair for local market and shipping; widely grown; freestone. 

Strawberry (New Jersey). — Medium size, oval; stem cavity deeply sunk; 
suture extending half way round; skin almost wholly marbled with deep red; 
flesh whitish, juicy, rich and delicate; tree healthy. 

Bergen's Ycllozr (New York). — Large, roundish; suture deep; orange yellow, 
red check; approved in Southern California. 

Foster (Massachusetts). — L^niformly large, slightly flattened; slight suture; 
stem moderately depressed; flesh yellow, very rich and juicy; color deep orange. 



248 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

dark red in the sun; freestone; tree hardy and productive; very widely grown 
in California and popular. Ripens before Early Crawford, which it sometimes 
resembles, but is of better quality. 

Crawford's Early (New Jersey). — Very large, oblong, swollen, point at the 
top prominent, suture shallow; skin yellow, with red cheek; flesh yellow, rich, 
and excellent; freestone; tree very healthy and productive; probably the most 
largely planted variety in California. 

George the Fourth (New York). — Large, round, deeply divided by broad 
suture ; sides unequal ; skin pale vellowish white, dotted with red, and red cheek ; 
flesh pale, red at pit, from, which it parts freely; quality good. Somewhat 
troubled with curl-leaf. 

Snoiv (American). — Large, globular; skin clear, beautiful, almost wholly 
white; flesh white to the free stone, juicy, rich, and sprightly. 

Mary's Choice (New Jersey). — Large, yellow, resembling Early Crawford, 
but ripening later. 

Red Cheek Melocoton (American). — Large, roundish oval, swollen point at 
top; yellow, with deep red cheek; flesh yellow, red at stone, which is free, juicy, 
good flavor. Approved in Humboldt and San Benito Counties. 

Tuskcna (Alabama or Mississippi). — Wrongly called "Tuscan" and "Tustin" 
cling in this State ; largely planted in interior valleys and foothills ; very large 
yellow cling; the earliest fine cling variety; very valuable for early shipping. 
Ripens with Crawford's Early. 

Oldmixom Free (American). — Large, roundish or slightly oval; greenish or 
yellowish white, marbled with red; flesh white, tender, and excellent, juicy and 
rich ; high flavor. 

Flattest Abe (California). — "Originated at Healdsburg, Sonoma County. 
Large, yellow, with red cheek; best quality; ripens between Crawford's Early and 
Late. Does not curl." — James Shinn. 

Morris White. — Large, oval ; skin white with creamy tint when fully ripe ; 
flesh white to the stone, which is free; melting, juicy, sweet, and rich; especially 
good for home use and canning; somewhat subject to curl-leaf. 

Wager (New York). — Lemon yellow tinged with red; flesh yellow, rich, juicy, 
sweet, excellent, having much the appearance and flavor of apricots ; stone small 
and free from the flesh ; quality best. 

Miiir (California). — Originated as chance seedling on the place of John Muir, 
near Silveyville, named and first propagated by G. W. Thissell, of Winters. Fruit 
large to very large; perfect freestone; flesh clear yellow, very dense, rich and 
sweet; pit small; tree a good bearer and strong grower, if on rich soil, to which 
it is best adapted ; free from curl in Vacaville district ; fruit a good shipper and 
canner, and peculiarly adapted to drying because of exceptional sweetness and 
density of flesh ; yield, one pound dry from less than five pounds fresh. One of 
the best California seedlings. Claimed by some to be identical with Wager. 

Muir variations with large flowers, with fruit like Muir, but not splitting at 
pit, reported by W. A. Rosander, Kingsburg; A. S. Coon, Fresno, and H. R. 
Shaw, Selma. 

Muir Cling by W. R. Fletcher, Green Valley, Sonoma County. Commended 
by Green Valley Cannery; propagated by A. F. Scheidecker, Santa Rosa, 1907. 

Wheatland (New York). — Large, roundish; skin golden yellow, shaded with 
crimson; flesh yellow, rather firm, juicy, sweet, and of fine quality. 

Elberta (Georgia). — Very large; round-oval with deep suture; golden-yellow, 
faint red stripes; flesh yellow, fine, juicy, rich and sweet; tree prolific; perfect 
freestone. 

Newhall (California). — "Originated with. Sjdvester Newhall, of San Jose. 
Very large, skin yellow, with a dark red cheek; flesh deep yellow, juicy, and a 
rich, vinous flavor ; ripens about one week before Crawford's Late ; tree very 
hardy, healthy, vigorous, and not affected by curl ; freestone." — John Rock. 



DESCRIPTIONS OF POPULAR PEACHES 249 

Stump the World (New Jersey). — Large, strong; skin creamy white, with 
briglit red cheek; flesh white, juicy, and higlily flavored. Commended for 
family use by the Southern Cahfornia Nurserymen's Association. Curls some- 
what in some localities ; freestone. 

Crawford's Late (New Jersey). — Very large, roundish, yellow with dark red 
cheek; flesh deep yellow, juicy, and melting; flavor rich and excellent; a popular 
and widely-grown variety, but very subject to curl-leaf in some localities; free- 
stone. 

Lemon Clingstone (South Carolina). — Large, lemon-shaped or oblong, having 
large, projecting, swollen point like a lemon; skin tine yellow; flesh firm, yellow 
with sprightly vinous subacid ; slightly red at the pit, which adheres firmly. 

Orange Clingstone. — Large, round ; suture distinctly marked and extending 
nearly around the fruit ; no swelling at apex, like Lemon Clingstone ; deep orange 
color, with red cheek; flesh yellow, firm, juicy, with rich flavor; somewhat sub- 
ject to mildew. Though largely grown, this variety has been largely supplanted 
by the following sub-varieties, which are seedlings from it. 

Sellers' Golden Cling (California). — Originated on the farm of S. A. Sellers, 
Contra Costa County, and introduced by James Shinn. Very large, rich golden 
color; tree healthy; one of the very best of clings; ripens with Late Crawford. 

Runyon's Orange Cling (California). — "Originated with Mr. Sol Runyon on 
the Sacramento River. Superior to the common Orange Ging. Runyon's 
Orange Cling has globose glands, and is not subject to mildew like the common 
sort. Fruit very large, yellow, with a dark crimson cheek; rich, sugary, and 
vinous flavor. Highly esteemed and extensively planted in the Sacramento 
region and elsewhere." — John Rock. 

Nichols' Orange Cling (California). — Originated by Joseph Nichols, of Niles, 
introduced by James Shinn. Large, yellow, with purple cheek; flesh yellow and 
good. Tree healthy and a heavy bearer. 

Peck's Orange Cling (California). — "Originated at Healdsburg, Sonoma 
County. Improved seedling of Orange Cling, of Downing. Large, handsome, 
yellow-fleshed, free from curl, hardy, vigorous, productive, superior for market 
or drying; nlanted more extensively in Santa Rosa Valley than in any other." — 
Luther Burbank. 

Stilson (California). — "Originated at Marysville (?). Perfect shape; very 
large ; red cheek with crimson stripes ; yellow-fleshed, more highly colored than 
Susquehanna; table and market quality excellent; ripens after Crawford's Late; 
freestone." — P. W. Butler. 

Susquehanna (Pennsylvania). — Large, nearly globular, suture half-round; skin 
rich yellow, nearly covered with red; flesh yellow, sweet, juicy, with rich, vinous 
flavor; freestone; tree healthy. Very widely distributed and popular. 

McCoivan's Cling (California). — Originated with Dr. McCowan, of Ukiah. 
Yellow cling; round, smooth outline; no suture; no red at pit, which is small; 
flesh firm, fine-grained, and sweet; not much subject to curl; fruit apt to run 
small unless carefully thinned; reported an irregular bearer in Alameda County; 
liked by canners ; approved by Placer County. 

Lovell (California). — Originated as chance seedling with G. W. Thisscll, and 
named by him in 1882; propagated by Leonard Coates, of Napa. Yellow, free- 
stone; size uniformly large, almost perfectly round; flesh fine, texture firm, solid, 
clear yellow to the pit; tree a good grower and bearer; superior for canning and 
shipping, and dries well. Said to curl in some places. "The richest peach I 
ever saw on a tray." — E. A. Bonine, Los Angeles County. The most popular 
yellow freestone for canning and drying. Somctmies reported as "heavier" than 
the Muir. 

McKevitt's Cling (California). — Originated as a chance seedling in apricot 
orchard planted by M. R. Miller, on place owned later by A. McKcvitt, Vaca 
Valley; named in 1882 by nurserymen who propagated it. A white clingstone; 
flesh very firm. fine-grain«fl. sugary, and rich, high flavor, white to the pit ; skin 
strong, and fruit excellent for shipping or canning; tree remarkably strong in 
growth and free from disease. Widely distributed. 



250 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

McClish Cling. — Yellow cling, grown in Sonoma County. 

Wylie Cling. — An old seedling by John Wylie, Green Valley, Sonoma County, 
increasing in popularity in northern Sonoma County as superior to Orange Cling 
in not splitting at the pit, and not dropping from the tree. A fine peach for 
canning and drying. 

General Bidzvell (California). — Originated from a short shoot from a peach 
root upon which an apricot had grown and died, on Ranch Chico. Named by State 
Horticultural Society, September 4, 1886, and commended for .cultivation. 
Ripens one week later than Late Crawford and ahead of Salway and Picquet's 
Late. About the shape of the Orange Cling, but larger ; very yellow with reddish 
cheek; flesh very solid, juicy, and rich; freestone and a small pit. 

California; syn. Edivard's Cling (California). — "Originated in Sacramento. 
Very large, round, regular ; orange, nearly covered with dark, rich red ; flesh deep 
yellow ; flavor delicate, rich vinous." — C. W. Reed. 

Picquet's Late (Georgia). — Large to very large; round, sometimes a little 
flattened; yellow, with red cheek; flesh yellow, melting, sweet, rich and fragrant; 
freestone; not subject to curl-leaf. 

Smock Freestone (New Jersey). — "Large yellow, mottled with red; moder- 
ately rich and juicy. A better drying peach than Salway." — E. A. Bonine. 

La Grange (New Jersey) — Large, oblong; greenish white, some red on sunny 
side ; not desirable in coast regions ; freestone. 

Salway (English). — Large, roundish oblate; suture broad, deep, extending 
beyond the apex ; skin downy, creamy yellow, rich, clear, crimson cheek ; flesh 
deep yellow, red at the pit; juicy, rich, sweet, vinous; freestone; a standard late 
peach in California; tree very healthy. 

Phillips' Clin^ (California). — Originated with Joseph Phillips, of Sutter 
County ; propagated by J. T. Bogue of Marysville. Fine large yellow cling, no 
color at pit, which is very small ; exceedingly rich and high colored ; described 
by Mr. Skinner, superintendent Marysville Cannery, as the best peach he ever 
used. The most popular yellow clingstone. Ripens progressively so that pick- 
ing can cover two weeks without falling from tree. Requires good land and 
ample moisture. 

Persian's Cling (California). — "Originated in Visalia, probably from seed of 
Heath Cling, and a few days earlier than its parent. Large ; clear white skin 
and flesh, the latter very sweet; commended for canning." — /. H. Thomas, Tulare 
County. 

Heath (Maryland). — Described by Downing as the most delicious of all 
clingstones. Very large ; skin downy, creamy white, with faint blush of red ; flesh 
greenish white, very tender and juicy, with most luscious flavor, best adapted to 
interior regions, or* places free from curl. 

Steadly (Missouri). — "Large to very large; white skin; flesh white at the pit, 
firm, rich, and good flavor ; freestone. Produces very heavy yield of dried fruit." 
— /. H. Thomas, Tulare County. 

George's Late Cling (California). — "Originated in Sacramento. Large; white 
flesh, colored around the pit ; beautiful yellow color, striped and splashed with 
bright red ; a very heavy and uniform bearer ; a good shipper, and at its season 
of ripening there is no peach grown in Placer County that yields the grower 
so much profit." — P. W. Butler. Subject to mildew in some localities. 

Yellow Tuscany {Dura cini, Tuscany). — A very large yellow cling; propa- 
gated by G. Tosetti, formerly of San Leandro; tree a strong grower and free 
from curl-leaf; very productive. On the basis of its behavior at the University 
Experiment Station at Pomona, this variety has recently been largely planted in 
Southern California. It is counted the best yellow cling for canning in that 
section. Ripens with Lemon Cling. 

Albright's Cling (California). — "Originated with Mr. Albright, near Placer- 
ville. Very large ; yellow, with bright cheek ; rarely equaled in quality and flavor. 
Described as larger, more highly colored, of better flavor, better shape, and the 
tree a more prolific bearer than the Orange Cling." — P. IV. Butler. Endures long 
shipment even after being well colored. 



DESCRIPTIONS OF POPULAR PEACHES 251 

McDcvitt Cling. — "Originated with Xeal McDevitt, of Placer County. Uni- 
formly large, rich, golden yellow, becoming red when ripe ; flesh very tirm and 
solid; superior in flavor; excellent shipper; tree good and regular bearer. 

Staley (California). — Very large; eleven and one-half inches in circumference; 
somewhat elongated and flattened laterally; rich, creamy white with very faint 
touches of light red ; suture shallow, but almost continuous around the peach ; 
stone small and perfectly free, cavity considerably longer than stone ; flesh white 
to the pit, very juicy, line, tender; flavor delicious. Originated as sucker from 
peach root from which prune had been broken off in Sclma, Fresno County. 
Ripens twenty days after Salway, or four weeks after Susquehanna. A high-class 
white freestone. Introduced by F. M. Nevins, Selma. 

Lciy's Late; syn. Henrietta (District of Columbia). — Above average size, 
yellow flesh, red cheek ; late ; clingstone. Very popular in San Joaquin Valley. 

Bilyeu's Late October. — "Large greenish white with red cheek ; flesh whitish, 
freestone; tree a rapid grower and attains great size; prolific bearer; fruit ships 
well, and where it will mature no peach can take its place; does particularly well 
in the foothills."— P. W. Butler. 

Decker (California). — Grown for eastern shipment, in Vaca Valley, and in 
Sutter and Butte counties. 



CHAPTER XXI 
THE NECTARINE 

The nectarine reaches perfection under CaHfornia conditions, as 
does its close relative, the peach. The fruit is, in fact, as Downing 
says, only a variety of the peach with a smooth skin ; only a distinct, 
accidental variety of the peach ; and this is rendered quite certain, since 
there are several well-known examples on record of both peaches and 
nectarines having been produced on the same branch. Nectarine pits 
usually produce nectarines again, but they occasionally produce peaches. 
Peach seeds occasionally produce nectarines ; the Boston variety orig- 
inated from a peach stone.* All these facts which are recorded of rela- 
tion between the peach and nectarine have been verified by California 
observation. 

The practice of growing nectarines is also exactly like that employed 
with the peach. It is propagated and pruned in the same ways, except 
that, as pointed out by Mr. Culbertson, the nectarine has more of a 
tendency to form short interior growths, and fruit buds are formed on 
the larger new growths, thus enabling the pruner to cut them back 
more closely, and yet have an abundance of fruit buds remain. The 
peach and nectarines are the same in natural adaptations and require- 
ments, and in diseases, so that what has been given concerning the 
growth of the peach in this State has an apt application in the case of 
the nectarine. 

The success of the nectarine worked on almond stock, as has been 
demonstrated by the experience of many, has led to the grafting over a 
good many unprofitable almond trees to nectarine, though this has not 
been done to the extent to which the French prune and some other 
plums have been worked on old almond stocks. 

Comparative Production of Nectarine and Peach. — It may be 

wondered, considering the similarity of the peach and the nectarine, 
why the former comes so near being our leading deciduous fruit and 
the latter is the least grown, but one, of all temperate zone fruits, only 
the lowly quince being less in importance. The explanation is that 
the fruit buyer, both in California and at the East, prefers the peach, 
whether it be fresh, or canned, or dried, and some of those who have 
tried even a few acres of nectarines have found many occasions to wish 
the ground had been given to peaches. How much of this preference 
is due to lack of knowledge of the nectarine, and how much to its 
somewhat different flavor, it would be difficult to actually determine. 

That the nectarine would advance in popular favor has been prophe- 
sied for some years, because of the wonderful excellence of the nectar- 
ine as grown in our interior valleys, and the passing beauty of the 
amber translucency of the dried nectarine, both when sun-dried and 
when produced by machine evaporators. The excellence of the canned 

*"Downing's Fruit and Fruit Trees," p. 565. 

252 



NFXTARINK NOT COMMERCIALLY GREAT 253 

nectarine has also fi.y;urc(l in the anticipation. It is, however, question- 
able how far this anticipation has been realized, for it is estimated that 
the amount of dried nectarines is less than two per cent and of canned 
nectarines less than one-half of one per cent of the respective forms of 
peaches. Nor does the demand call for change in this proportion, for 
there is a slight advantage in the market value of the peach even in its 
;great preponderance of supply. During the last decade many nectar- 
ines have been rooted out to be replaced by peach trees, or have been 
grafted over into peaches. There are, however, some growers who are 
confident that the nectarine will in the future rank much higher in 
the California fruit product. It would please growers and fruit driers 
and canners to popularize the nectarine, for its smooth skin makes it 
as easy to handle as an apricot, and the beauty of the product, which 
certainly exceeds that of the peach and is rather more easily attained, 
is very gratifying to the producer. 



VARIETIES OF THE NECTARINE 

V^arieties of the nectarine, as of the peach, show different local 
adaptations, and are valued by growers accordingly. The varieties 
grown, are, however, comparatively few. The following have been 
found most satisfactory in California; the descriptions are somewhat 
condensed from Downing's treatise, modified to suit local growth, and 
arranged approximately in the order of the ripening of the varieties. 

Advance. — Large, round, green, marked with red and brown; flesh greenish 
white ; rich and well flavored. The earliest to ripen. 

Lord A'ajficr (English).— Large, pale, cream color with dark red cheek; flesh 
white, melting, tender and juicy, separating freely from stone; leaf glands reni- 
form and flowers large. Especially commended as a heavy and regular bearer; 
pronounced best in flavor at Pomona Experiment Station. 

Downton (English). — Leaves with reniform glands; flowers small; fruit 
large, roundish oval ; skin pale green, with deep violet red cheek ; flesh pale 
green, slightly red at the stone, which is free, melting rich, and very good. 

Early Newington (English). — Leaves serrated without glands, flowers large; 
fruit large, roundish ovate, a little enlarged on one side, and terminating with an 
acute, swollen point ; skin pale green, but nearly covered with bright red and 
coated with thin bloom; flesh greenish white, but deep red at stone, which 
adheres closely, juicy, sugary, rich, and excellent. 

Hardu'ickc (English.) — Leaves with globose glands; fruit very large, round- 
ish, inclining to oval ; skin pale green, with deep violet red cheek ; flesh pale 
green, slightly marked with red at the stone, melting, rich, and highly-flavored ; 
freestone. This variety is a favorite in Southern California; described by the 
Southern California Nurserymen's Association as being the only satisfactory 
bearer. 

Boston. — Raised from a peach stone by T. Lewis, of Boston ; tree hardy and 
productive; leaves with globose glands; flowers small; fruit large and handsome, 
roundish oval, bright yellow, with deep red cheek ; flesh yellow to the stone 
(which is small and pointed), sweet, though not rich, with pleasant and peculiar 
flavor; freestone; a general favorite in California. 

Nezv White; syn. Large White. — Leaves with reniform glands; flowers large; 
fruit rather large, nearly round ; skin white with occasionally slight tinge of red ; 
flesh white, tender, very iuicy, with rich, vinous flavor; stone small and free 
commanded wherever nectarines are grown in California, and more freely planted 
than all other nectarines combined. 



254 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Stanzmck. — Originated in England from seed brought from Syria. Large, 
roundish oval, slightly heart-shaped at base ; skin pale, greenish white, shaded 
into deep, rich violet in the sun; flesh white, tender, juicy, rich, sugary, and 
delicious. 

Humboldt. — Very large, bright orange yellow vigorously marked with crim- 
son, flesh orange, tender; juicy, and highly flavored. Described as one of the 
best of the newer varieties. Ripens late. 

As the future for the nectarine seems to rest upon drying and 
canning of the fruit, the hght-skinned, white or yellow-fleshed varieties 
without color at the stone, are most desirable. For drying there has 
been thus far a decided preference for freestone varieties, though pos- 
sibly the present popularity for cling peaches for drying may extend 
to the clingstone nectarines. Much color, however, either in skin or 
flesh, will prevent the production of the beautiful translucent, amber 
hue of the dried nectarine, which is attractive to consumers. Color in 
the flesh is, of course, undesirable in canning, because of the discolora- 
tion of the syrup. These facts have had much to do in fixing the popu- 
larity of the varieties named in the foregoing list. 

At present the largest orchards of nectarines are in the interior 
valley locations, which are also fine for the peach and are perfectly 
adapted both to the growing of the fruit and to the open-air, sun-drying 
of it. 



CHAPTER XXII 
THE PEAR 

The oldest deciduous fruit trees in California are pear trees, as has 
already been stated in the account of fruits at the old missions, and 
some of the trees are still bearing, though it is a century and a third 
since their planting. Trees planted by pioneers in the old mining dis- 
tricts have actually assumed semblance to adjacent oaks. Notable 
instances are found in the Stillwater district of Shasta County and 
elsewhere. Near San Jose there is a tree over half a century old, with 
a trunk seven and a half feet around and yielding annually about 
fifteen hundred pounds of fruit, some of which was exhibited at the 
Columbian Exposition. 

The pear withstands neglect and thrives in soils and situations 
which other fruit trees would rebel against. It defies drouth and exces- 
sive moisture, and patiently proceeds with its fruitage even when the 
soil is trampled almost to rocky hardness by cattle, carrying its fruit 
and foliage aloft above their reach. And yet the pear repays care and 
good treatment, and receives them from California growers, for the 
pear has been one of our most profitable fruits. It is in demand for 
canning, for drying, and for distant shipment, and its long season and 
the slow ripening after picking allow deliberation in marketing, and 
admit of enjoying low rates for shipment by slow trains. One of the 
most striking demonstrations of the commercial suitability of the Cali- 
fornia pear is found in successful marketing in London. Solomons, 
who is called "London's greatest fruiter," said in 1903 that California 
Bartletts from Block of Santa Clara are the "best in the world." Even 
after crossing the continent they seemed to endure shipment across the 
Atlantic better than eastern pears. 

The most obvious marks of the California pear are size and beauty. 
The most conspicuous example is the Bartlett. which is the pear of 
California, judged by its popularity, fresh, canned and dried. When 
well grown, its size is grand, and its delicate color, aroma and richness 
unsurpassed. What extreme in point of size has been reached is not 
known to the writer, but he saw at the San Jose Horticultural Fair, of 
1886, thirteen Bartlett pears grown by A. Block, of Santa Clara, which 
weighed fourteen pounds, the heaviest of the group weighing twentv- 
two and one-half ounces. Other pears have made standard sizes in 
California far in advance of their records elsewhere. There was in 
1870 a Pound pear sent from Sacramento to the late Marshall P. 
Wilder, president of the American Pomological Society, w'hich weighed 
four pounds and nine ounces, and was reported by Colonel Wilder to be 
larger than anything previously reported in pear annals.* But Cali- 
fornia has recently done even better, for a pear from near Marysville in 
1004 was reported as nine inches high, sixteen inches around the base 

•"Tilton's Journal of Horticulture, March, 1871, p. 87. An engraving of this fruit, 
natural size, was given in Pacific Rural Press, November 8, 1873." 

255 



256 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

and five pounds in weight. Notes kept by the writer include five Vicar 
of Winkfields weighing four pounds eight ounces ; nine Easter Beurre 
weighing twenty-four and one-half pounds, the heaviest single speci- 
men weighing two and three-fourths pounds ; thirty-five Beurre Clair- 
geau weighing thirty-seven pounds, the heaviest one, nineteen ounces ; 
Seckel pears, nine and three-fourths inches in circumference — Down- 
ing's figures make the Seckel five and seven-eighths inches around. 



LOCALITIES FOR THE PEAR 

The pear has a wider range than the apple in local adaptations. It 
does as well as the apple in the coast regions, if suitable varieties are 
grown ; it thrives far better than the apple in the interior valleys ; it 
rivals the apple in the ascent of the slope of the Sierra Nevada, and 
gains from the altitude, color and late keeping, as does the apple. By 
rejecting a few naturally tender varieties, or by proper protection 
against the scab fungus, in regions where its attacks are severe, one 
can grow pears almost everywhere in California — providing pear 
blight can be held in check, as will be discussed later. 

The choice of location is governed more by commercial considera- 
tions than by natural phenomena. The same facts which make the 
Bartlett the favorite variety with planters, also should regulate the 
choice of locality for growing it. These facts were expressed by the 
late C. W. Reed, of Sacramento, who was in his time one of the lead- 
ing pear growers and shippers of the State, as follows : 

In the Sacramento Valley proper there is but one variety of pear that will 
justify extensive cultivation, viz., the Bartlett. While nearly all varieties may be 
grown successfully, and many varieties may be desirable for home purposes, yet 
for profitable orchards we have to confine ourselves to this one variety, except in 
high altitudes, or localities where the fruit only matures very late. The reason 
for this will be better understood by the inexperienced if explained. The Bartlett 
pear having qualities that make it a universal favorite for shipping, canning, and 
for domestic market, no other variety is wanted while it is obtainable. With the 
difference in the time of its ripening in different localities that are adjacent, our 
markets are supplied with this variety about four months each season, viz., July, 
August, September and October. While this pear is in the markets, any other 
variety to compete with it must sell at very low prices. 

Of course experienced pear growers, whose taste would soon cloy 
with a continuous diet of Bartletts, and who know fully the superior 
quality of other varieties which ripen soon after it, would dispute the 
position taken by Mr. Reed, but for present California taste and trade 
he is undoubtedly correct. As the canners and shippers and local con- 
sumers all call for Bartletts, and as they usually sell at 'the East for 
nearly twice the price of other varieties, the choice of location to secure 
a Bartlett, either very early or very late, is the part of wisdom, for 
either end of the season usually yields better prices than the middle. 
Some growers are even opening the Bartlett season by growing Clapp's 
Favorite, which sells well because it is taken for a Bartlett, and closing 
the season with the Winter Bartlett, a local variety recently introduced. 
The earliest Bartletts come from the interior valley sometimes as early 
as the last week in June; the next, from the valleys adjacent to the 



SOILS FOR THE PEAR 2b7 

Bay of San Francisco ; the next, from the higher foothills of the Sierra 
Nevada ; and the last, so far as present experience goes, although some 
coast and mountain situations are quite late, reach the market from the 
Vacaville district. It is an interesting fact that this district, which has 
long been famous for marketing the first early fruits, should also 
market very late ones. It is true, however, that early fruits hasten to 
maturity and late fruits are retarded. Late fruits push along until 
about midsummer, then stop growing for a month or two during the 
hottest weather, and afterwards proceed on their course and finish up 
well. W. W. Smith, of Vaca Valley, has picked Bartletts as late as 
November 19, but that is unusually late. In years with heavy late 
spring rains the Bartlett ripens earlier in the Vaca Valley than in or- 
dinary seasons, and when the fruit sells well in the East, the Bartletts 
are gathered green and shipped all through the season, as their first 
growth usually makes them large enough for this purpose. 

There is produced in some situations a "second crop" of Bartletts 
and of other varieties, which is of account when pears are scarce and 
is sometimes dried with profit. For such fruit the bloom appears upon 
the tips of the shoots of the current season's growth. The fruit is 
sometimes coreless and has led to claims of "seedless pears." Bartlett 
pears have actually been picked in the foothills above Peatz in Butte 
County on February 25, 1905. and described as "fine, delicious and 
ripe." This fact must be regarded as a token of local climatic salubrity 
and not of economic or pomological account. 

Bartletts can also be successfully held in storage for a time if fitted 
for it. The experiments of the United States Department of Agricul- 
ture, conducted in Southern Oregon, show that the Bartlett season can 
be extended from six to seven weeks by leaving the fruit on the trees 
two weeks longer than is at present the practice and by storing for four 
or five weeks at a temperature of 32° or 34° F. after the fruit has been 
precooled. 

SOILS FOR THE PEAR 

The pear, if it is not allowed to dry out entirely, will generally do 
well on shallow soil and over a tight^ clay hard-pan, where most other 
fruits would be unsatisfactory or fail utterly. The trees will thrive in 
clay loams, and even in adobe, if properly cultivated. In laying out 
fruit farms, which often include a variety of soils, even in comparatively 
small area, the pears and plums (if on the right stock, as will be seen), 
should be set in the lower, moister, stifTer soil, and other fruits on the 
lighter, warmer, and better drained portions. The pear, however, 
enjoys the better situation, though it will thrive on the poorer. The 
tree seems to attain its greater growth and heaviest bearing on the 
alluvial soils of the valleys and near the banks of rivers and streams. 
All pears will be later in maturing and have better keeping qualities if 
grown on a clay subsoil. Thus it appears that the pear will flourish 
whether the water is near or far from the surface. On wet land the 
apple is apt to die in a few years, or become worthless. On dry land 
the apple lives longer, but \he fruit is small and tasteless. But the pear 
tree may bear good fruit, under the same conditions. 



258 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

It has been learned by experience that the pear will flourish on soil 
somewhat alkaline. At the University Agricultural Experiment Station 
at Tulare, this subject was demonstrated in detail. It was shown that 
though the pear endures a certain amount of alkali its limit of endur- 
ance may be often exceeded and there is little warrant to select alkali 
soil for pears, unless it be to fill a space that would otherwise be vacant 
in the orchard. If it is not too alkaline the pears will thrive. If gyp- 
sum be used in planting, somewhat stronger alkali will be endured than 
otherwise. 

PROPAGATION AND PLANTING 

The use of dwarfing stock for the pear has been nearly abandoned 
in this State, though in early years the quince was largely used. The 
most prominent orchard on quince stock is that of A. Block, of Santa 
Clara, where may be seen dwarf trees originally planted eight feet 
apart in squares, but now wider spaced by removing part of the trees ; 
the remainder doing exceedingly well under liberal manuring and irri- 
gation. It would, however, require special investigation to determine 
whether these trees are still dependent upon the quince or whether 
they have developed roots from the pear wood above. 

It is quite possible that, at least for gardens, there may be in the 
future more use made of dwarf trees, but for commercial orchards 
there appears no need of dwarfing. The common conclusion is that it 
is better to have fewer trees and larger ones, but since the pear blight 
became an issue in this State the Anglers quince has been advocated as 
a means of maintaining a sound root and keeping the warfare above 
ground. 

The following varieties are commended for cultivation on quince 
stock as dwarfs, experience proving them vigorous growers and abun- 
dant bearers in suitable localities : Bartlett, Beurre Hardy, Doyenne 
du Comice, Duchess d'Angouleme, Glout Morceau, Pound, Beurre Diel, 
White Doyenne, Easter Beurre, Winter Nelis, P. Barry, Winter Bart- 
lett. 

But the pear is usually grown in California on its own roots ; that 
is upon imported French pear seedlings. It comes into bearing early 
enough, and is a long-lived tree unless badly attacked by blight. Trees 
are grown by either budding or grafting, as described in the chapter 
on that subject. Only good seedling roots should be used, and not 
suckers from old trees. The Japanese stock, so called, being seedlings 
from the Sand pear, of Asia, is now being widely used because of con- 
fidence in it as measurably blight resistant, while it is also less subject 
to attack by woolly aphis, has been used to some extent, but no definite 
results reported. Propagation upon rooted cuttings of the Le Conte, 
which has a measurable resistance to the pear blight, has been advised 
for the purpose of securing less susceptible roots, but Japanese seed- 
lings are easier to secure and to work with than rooted cuttings. Mr. 
M. B. Waite, orchard pathologist of the United States Department of 
Agriculture, has in progress a test of many cross-bred seedlings in the 
hope of reaching a hardier seedling stock for pears than is now known. 



PRUNING THE PEAR 259 

He also proposes top grafting the Bartlett upon Winter Nelis, Seckel, 
Angouleme, Lawson and other partially immune varieties to increase 
the chances of securing a somewhat resistant tree-body and sound roots. 
Fortunately the pear is readily grafted-over by the common methods, 
and some growers are planting Winter Nelis on Japanese roots, expect- 
ing to top-graft them with Bartlett in the orchard. 

Distance in Planting. — If the pears are to have the whole 
ground, it is usual to plant from twenty to twenty-four feet aj^art on 
tiie s(|uarc. As the tree is slower to attain size and full bearing than the 
stone fruits, and as it is a long-lived tree, the pears are sometimes set 
twenty-four feet with plums in quincunx. Peaches and apricots are 
also set between pears sometimes, when the soil chosen for pears suits 
them also. 

PRUNING 

Usually the pear is grown in the vase form, as described in the 
general chapter on pruning. With regular, upright growers, heading 
low and cutting to outside buds results in a handsome, gently-spreading 
top, and effectually curbs the disposition which some varieties, notably 
the Bartlett, have to run straight up with main branches crowded to- 
gether. 

The development of the vase-form with a few continuous leaders, in 
a general way as prescribed for the peach in Chapter XX, is practicable. 
Such leaders are to be covered with short, fruit-bearing laterals. Thin- 
ning and shortening of laterals can be done by summer pruning. 

As with other fruit trees, the pear must be studied and pruning 
must be done with an understanding of the habit of the variety under 
treatment. Irregular and wayward growers, which, in windy places, 
also have their rambling disposition promoted by prevailing winds, 
often give the grower much perplexity. The general rules of cutting 
to an outside bud to spread the tree, to an inside bud to raise and con- 
centrate it, and to an outside bud one pear and an inside bud the next, 
if a limb is desired to continue in a certain course, are all helpful to 
the pruner. But with some pears, of which the Winter Nelis is a con- 
spicuous example, it is exceedingly hard to shape the tree by these 
general rules, and some growers abandon all rules, merely shortening 
in where too great extension is seen, or to facilitate cultivation, and 
trust to shaping the tree when it shall have finished its rampant grow- 
ing period. It will be interesting to cite a few methods of California 
pear growers : 

"The Winter Nelis pear is an uncouth grower. Let the trees alone until they 
have borne a good, heavy crop, and the limbs come dovi'n and spread out nicely ; 
this will occur in five or six years after setting. This will give you an idea 
what you want to do with the balance of the top that is not borne down with 
the fruit. My plan is to cut straggling branches, thin out so that the branches 
will not wind around each other, but don't cut the top, for you will find that the 
more you cut the more wood you get. and after the tree comes into full bearing 
is plenty of time to head back." — /J. Cadzccll, Pctalunia. 

"Our orchard in Napa county was not in a very windy place, but still windy 
enough to throw our Nelis* trees out of form. To get any regularity of shape, 
we cut off every year all the shoots growing low down on the leeward side, 



260 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

shortening in what are left as occasion may require, to an inside bud. On the 
windward side we rarely cut any branch out, but shorten in a little to an outside 
bud, frequently being obliged to cut back a strong shoot to a lateral which is 
growing outward." — Leonard Coates, Morganhill. 

"It is hard to get a misshapen Winter Nehs tree into shape. Let the grower 
take his shears and go around the tree and examine the difficulty until he is 
conversant with it, and then commence to prune, not to heavily, though. Cut 
the Hmbs that lean too far leewards back a little with an inside bud, and train all 
future limbs toward the weather side of the tree ; cut limbs this year so that 
the coming buds will form limbs growing in the direction of the weather side of 
the tree. But use moderation and take your time for it, and don't cut too many 
big limbs off three-year-old trees — none, in fact, if it can be helped. In bringing 
limbs to proper place, I have found a piece of cornstock the required length for 
the intended place, inserted endwise between the limb and the body of the tree to 
be spread, to be a very good brace, easily made, and not likely to injure the tree." 
— T. E. Owen, Santa Cruz. 

These methods will suggest others by which one can bring the most 
irregular grower into shape. If the tree is cut at planting so as to form 
the head low, it may be safely left until bearing age for shaping. The 
tree naturally makes a viny growth of young wood, and the object of 
leaving it alone is that one limb holds the others more upright until the 
main limbs become large, or stiff enough to keep the shape; so they 
may be left, after being thinned out to form three to five limbs, as judg- 
ment may direct. Some trees will be best with three or four, others 
five. 

The experience of pear pruning just cited has been secured in 
regions more or less subject to coast influences. In the hot interior 
valleys, with the pear as with the apple, care must be taken to prune 
so as not to open the tree too much to the sun, but to shorten in and 
thin out only so far as is consistent with maintaining a good covering 
of foliage. 

The pruning of bearing pear trees is much like that of the apple, to 
be determined largely by the habit of the tree, and to secure a fair 
amount of fruit on branches with strength and stififness enough to sus- 
tain it. 

Summer pruning will promote fruiting either in a young or an old 
tree and some practice it to secure early bearing of young trees, but 
the common practice is winter pruning to secure strong wood and 
prevent overbearing. 

THINNING PEARS 

It is quite important to attend to thinning the fruit on overloaded 
trees. Even the popular Bartlett will often give fruit too small for 
profitable sale unless thinned. With pears, as other fruits, thinning 
should not be done until it is seen that the fruit is well set. Dropping 
off from natural causes sometimes thins the crop quite enough. 

IRRIGATION OF THE PEAR 

In some situations the pear needs irrigation, though it will endure 
drouth which would destroy most other fruit trees. There is no profit 
in small, tough fruit. As stated in the chapter on irrigation the wood 



PEAR BLIGHT AND ITS TREATMENT 261 

growth and fruit show whether proper moisture needs are met or not. 
Early pears are advanced in development by irrigation in some parts of 
the State, and this is an important factor in their value. 

BLIGHT OF THE PEAR 

The pear blight appeared in the San Joaquin Valley about 1900. 
In 1904. after having nearly wiped out bearing trees in the southern 
counties of the San Joaquin X'alley the disease began to devastate the 
orchards along the Sacramento River through the vast area of rich 
valley land which it traverses and on which is situated our most ex- 
tensive pear acreage. In 1905 resolute warfare was made upon the 
blight, with a large appropriation of State funds, by the plant disease 
experts of the United States Department of Agriculture and of the 
California Agricultural Experiment Station, with the assistance of the 
local horticultural authorities. It was probably the greatest campaign 
ever made against a single tree disease although some insect warfares 
have been greater. The outlines of the plans followed and the results 
attained are to be found in the publications of the institutions engaged.* 

In a later chapter on Diseases of Trees and Vines, an outline of 
procedure against pear blight will be given. It is apprehended that 
neither paying crops nor living trees can be counted upon in the future 
unless the disease is successfully kept under control by successful 
fighting or by recourse to some form of natural immunity which can be 
discovered or developed by plant breeding. It is probable that pears 
can not be grown in the future as cheaply and profitably as in the 
past and there is a certain amount of bravery or daring in pear invest- 
ments at the present time. It is encouraging, however, to note that in 
California the disease shows signs of relaxing the virulence which 
characterized its first attacks and it is reasonable to believe that here as 
elsewhere it may be possible to have the blight and pears also.f The 
reader must keep himself continually of the various phases of the 
problem as they will arise, by careful study of California horticultural 
journals and of later publications from the official sources which have 
been indicated. 

The very exuberance of the pear in California seems to increase the 
virulence of the blight. The long growing season with its continual 
production of new soft tissue, the unseasonable bloom which attracts 
bees to bring new supplies of blight germs, the break of new shoots 
from root, trunk and main branches — all these make the tree subject 
to repeated renewals of the disease in all its most vulnerable parts. How 
far growth can be repressed by scant cultivation or by summer prun- 
ing ; how far suppression of later shoots and blooms is practicable and 
whether the tree can be depleted so that it can only make fair sized 
fruit and no surplus soft tissue for blight invasion — all these are cul- 
tural problems which make pear growing very interesting to the enquir- 

•Reports of the California Commissioners of Horticulture, 1901 to 1906, including Reports 
on California Fruit Growers' Conventions for 1905-6-7. Horticultural Commissioner, Sacra- 
mento. Report of Plant PathfiloRist, University Experiment Station, Berkeley, 1906 and 1908. 

tThe character of such a fiehf and what it costs is graphically portrayed by E. A. Gam- 
mon in the Report of California Fruit Growers' Convention of 1909, and in Pacific Rural 
Press, June 22, 1910. 



262 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

ing mind. A Sonoma grower suggests that pruning may be used 
to control pear blight in the following manner : It is the natural 
tendency of the pear and apple while young to form fruiting spurs upon 
the body and larger branches of the tree. These fruiting spurs produce 
blossoms from year to year, which are in turn as liable to be visited 
by bees or other insects carrying the destructive spores of the disease 
as are the blossoms at the ends of the branches. It is evident, there- 
fore, that a blossom situated upon the body or larger branches of a tree, 
becoming infected, would communicate the disease directly to the 
framework of the tree, with the result that it would be fatally injured; 
but if these fruiting spurs are all removed from the body and larger 
branches by pruning, the possibilities of infection in this way are over- 
come. The available means of gaining entrance to the tree by this 
parasite is confined to the smaller branches, which if affected can be cut 
away without severely injuring or disfiguring the tree. All suckers at the 
base of the tree should be removed at the point where they emerge from 
the trunk or the roots as they favor the entrance of Wight to the root. 
The scab fungus which seriously afifects some varieties, and notably 
the Winter Nelis. in the Coast region, is identical with the scab of the 
apple and will be mentioned in the chapter on tree diseases. Because 
of the liability of the Winter Nelis, to this disease, and because of its 
irregular bearing in the Coast region, there have been many trees 
grafted over into varieties better suited to Coast conditions. The Beurre 
Clairgeau, because of its health, prolific bearing, and acceptability to 
shippers, was largely introduced in this way, but it has not sold as well 
as expected. Ordinary top grafting succeeds admirably with the pear. 
Clapp's Favorite and other varieties have also been worked upon 
Winter Nelis but they are apt to be more susceptible to blight than 
Winter Nelis so this old practice is now of less value than formerly. 

GATHERING AND RIPENING OF PEARS 

Many pear growers make the common mistake of allowing the 
fruit to hang too long on the tree, instead of gathering and ripening 
in a cool, dark place. Pears should be picked at the first indication of 
ripeness, the first sign being a tendency of the stem to part from the 
spur when the pear is gently raised up. This test applies especially to 
the Bartlett. Picking at this stage and laying away in the dark ripens 
up the Bartlett well. When picked at this stage and sent overland by 
slow freight, they ripen en route and the boxes open well on the Eastern 
markets. There are a few varieties which shrivel if ripened under 
cover, but the rule is a good one, and the grower will soon note the 
exceptions. Many desirable varieties have, no doubt, been pronounced 
poor and insipid because allowed to ripen on the tree. 

To ripen well, pears should be packed in tight boxes or inclosed 
in drawers. They do not do as well as apples on shelves open to 
circulation of air. As already stated, the oily-skinned apple endures 
exposure and maintains a smooth, ruddy cheek and sound heart in 
spite of wind, rain and rough weather. The pear under similar 
conditions decays rapidly. 



BLOOMING DATES OF PEARS 



263 



POLLINATION OF PEARS 

As very few varieties of pears are largely grown in California 
and as the Bartlett generally bears well when grown in large acreages 
by itself, the Eastern claim that the Bartlett is self-sterile does not 
seem to be justified in California experience. Recent observations 
indicate that even at the east the Bartlett is self-fertile when conditions 
are favorable to setting of the fruit and self-sterile when they are 
otherwise. As conditions are usually favorable in California this may 
he the reason why its self-fertility is more conspicuous here than at 
the east. It has been individually noted, however, that the White 
Doyenne is a good fertilizer for the Bartlett. The Winter Nelis is 
one of the pears commercially worth growing which is most apt to 
be fruitless, but thus far association with other varieties has not 
been demonstrated to be a full remedy. For the assistance of those 
who desire to test pear pollination the following statement is made 
of the relative dates of bloom of a large number of varieies, based 
upon records kept in Tulare County : 



VARIETY. First Bloom. Full Bloom. 

Barry March 10 March 20 

Bartlett March 14 March 24 

Belle Lucrative March 14 March 26 

Beurre Clairgeau March 1 1 March 22 

Beurre d'Amanlis March 10 March 20 

Beurre d'Anjou March 16 March 24 

Beurre Die! March 20 March 30 

Beurre Giffard March 16 March 26 

Beurre Gris d'Hiver March 14 March 24 

Beurre Hardy March 18 March 28 

Clapp's Favorite March 14 March 24 

Colonel Wilder March 14 March 24 

Counseillcr de la Cour March 12 March 22 

Dearborn's Seedling March 16 March 28 

Doyenne d'.Alencon March 18 March 28 

Doyenne d'Ete March 18 March 28 

Doyenne du Cornice March 16 March 26 

Duchesse d'Angoulene March 12 March 20 

Easter Beurre March 14 March 20 

Flemish Beauty March 20 March 30 

Forelle March 2 March 10 

Frederick Clapp March 16 March 26 

Howell March 14 March 24 

Jaminette March 12 March 22 

Joseph de Malines March 12 March 22 

Keifer's Hybrid March 2 March 10 

Kennedy March 14 March 24 

Lawrence March 12 March 22 

Lawson March 16 March 26 

Le Conte Feb. 28 March 2 

Louise Bonne de Jersey March 10 March 20 

Seckel March 14 March 24 

Sheldon March 18 March 28 

Souvenir du Congres March 20 March 29 

Swan's Orange March 14 March 24 

Vernon , ^rarch 8 March 19 

White Dovcnne March 14 March 24 

Winter Nelis March 12 March 20 



264 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

VARIETIES OF THE PEAR 

Though large collections of famous Eastern and European pears 
have been brought to California, the peculiarity of the local market 
and demand for canning and shipping has led to concentration upon 
very few sorts. The pears chiefly grown in California are the follow- 
ing, arranged approximately in the order of their ripening: 

Harvest; syn. Sugar Pear (American). — Small, roundish, pale yellow, brown- 
ish in sun, brown and green dots; flesh whitish, rather dry but sweet; tree 
upright, young wood olive yellow brown. 

Madeleine (French). — Medium, obovate pyriform, stalk long and slender, set 
on the side of a small swellinp^: pale yellowish green, rarely brownish blush; 
calyx small, in shallow, furrowed basin; flesh white, juicy, delicate. 

Wilder Early (American). — Small to medium, yellow with red cheek; sweet, 
and good. Recently introduced and profitable for local sale in San Diego 
county. Should not be confused with Col. Wilder, a California seedling which 
has gone out of use. 

Bloodgood (New York). — Tree short, jointed, deep reddish brown wood; 
fruit medium turbinate, inclining to obovate, thickening abruptly into stalk; 
yellow, sprinkled with russet dots; calyx strong, open, almost without depression; 
stalk obliquely inserted, without depression, short, fleshy at its base ; flesh yellow- 
ish white, melting, sugary, aromatic ; core small. 

Clapp's Favorite (Massachusetts). — Tree a strong grower; young shoots dark 
reddish brown ; fruit large, slightly obtuse pyriform ; pale lemon yellow with 
brown dots; flesh fine, melting, juicy, with rich, sweet delicate, vinous flavor; 
resembles Bartlett, but lacks musky flavor. 

Dearborn's Seedling (Massachusetts). — Young shoots long, reddish brown; 
under medium size ; roundish pyriform ; smooth, clear, light yellow, with few 
minute dots ; stalk slender set with very little depression ; calyx spreading in 
shallow basin; flesh white, very juicy, melting, sprightly. 

Lawson; syn. Comet (New York). — Medium to large, bright crimson on 
yellow ground ; flesh fine, rich and sweet. 

Souvenir du Congres (French). — Large to very large (exceeding Bartlett and 
Clapp's Favorite, to both of which it bears a strong resemblance) ; skin smooth, 
bright yellow when fully ripe, brilliant carmine in the sun; flesh resembling 
Bartlett, but has not the musky flavor; firm to the core; tree a good grower, but 
somewhat subject to smut. 

Bartlett (English). — Tree a strong grower, early bearer, and healthy; fruit 
large, smooth, clear yellow, sometimes with delicate blush ; stalk moderately long, 
stout and inserted in shallow cavity; calyx open; flesh white, fine grained, juicy, 
buttery, highly perfumed (musky), vinous flavor. 

Beurre Hardy. — Large, long obovate, sometimes obscurely pyriform ; skin 
greenish with thin, brown russet; stalk an inch long; cavity small, uneven, 
oblique, basin shallow ; buttery, somewhat melting, rich, slightly subacid ; tree a 
strong grower. 

Flemish Beauty (Belgian). — Large, obovate, often obscurely tapering to the 
crown, very obtuse, surface slightly rough, with some reddish brown russet on 
pale yellow ground; flesh juicy, melting, and good if picked early and ripened in 
the house. 

Seckel (Pennsylvania). — Rather small, regularly formed, obovate; brownish 
green, becoming dull yellowish brown, with russet red cheek; stalk slightly 




b 






X 



DESCRIPTIONS OF POPULAR PEARS 265 

curved, and set in strifling depression ; calyx small and set in a very slight 
depression ; flesh whitish, buttery, very juicy and melting, with peculiarly rich, 
spicy flavor and aroma. 

Hozi'cll (Connecticut). — Rather large, roundish pyriform, light waxen yellow, 
often with finely-shaded check thickly sprinkled with minute russet dots and 
some russet patches ; stalk medium, without cavity and sometimes lipped ; some- 
times in small cavity; calyx open in large, uneven basin; flesh whitish, juicy, 
brisk, vinous. 

Duchess d'Angouleme (France). — Very large, oblong obovate ; somewhat 
uneven, knobby surface ; dull greenish yellow, streaked and spotted with russet ; 
stalk long, stout, bent, deeply set in irregular cavity; calyx set in somewhat 
knobby basin; flesh white, butterv. and juicy, with rich flavor. 

Louise Bonne of Jersey (France.) — Laree oblong pyriform, a little one-sided; 
glassy, pale green in shade, brownish red in the sun, numerous gray dots ; stalk 
curved, rather obliquely inserted, without depression, or with a fleshy, enlarged 
base; calyx open in a shallow uneven basin; flesh very juicy, and melting, rich, 
and excellent ; very prolific. 

Bcurre Did (Belgium). — Large, varying from obovate to obtuse pyriform; 
skin rather thick, lemon yellow, becoming orange yellow, marked with large 
brown dots and marblings of russet ; stalk stout, curved in rather uneven cavity ; 
calyx nearly closed in slightly furrowed basin ; flesh yellowish white, a little 
coarse-grained near the core; rich, sugary, buttery, delicious. 

White Doyenne; syn. Virgalicu (French.) — Medium to large, regular, obo- 
vate; smooth, clear pale yellow sprinkled with small dots, sometimes red cheeked ; 
stalk brown, little curved, in small round cavity ; calyx small, closed in shallow 
basin ; flesh white, fine-grained, buttery, rich, and high flavored. 

Bcurre Base (Belgium.) — Large pyriform, a little uneven, often tapering long 
and gradually into the stalk; skin pretty smooth, dark yellow, dots and streaks 
of cinnamon russet, slightly red on one side ; stalk long, rather slender, curved ; 
calyx short, in shallow basin ; flesh white, melting, buttery, rich, with slightly 
perfumed flavor. 

Onondaga ; syn. Sican's Orange (Connecticut). — Large, obtuse, oval pyriform, 
neck very short and obtuse, body large and tapering to obtuse apex ; flesh melting, 
sprightly, vinous. A vigorous, upright grower, healthy; yellow shoots; sells well 
in distant markets. 

Beurre Clairgcau (France.) — Large, pyriform, but with unequal sides; yellow, 
shaded with orange and crimson, thickly covered with russet dots, sometimes 
sprinkled with russet; stalk short, stout and fleshy, inserted by a lip at an inclina- 
tion almost without depression ; when lip is absent, the cavity is uneven ; calyx 
open; flesh yellowish, buttery, juicy, granular, sugary, perfumed, vinous; apt to 
ripen early for a winter pear. 

Bcurre d'Anjou (France). — Large, obtuse pyriform; stem, short, thick, and 
fleshy, in a cavity, surrounded by russet ; calyx small, open in small capity, rus- 
setted ; skin greenish, sprinkled with russet, sometimes shaded with dull crimson, 
brown and crimson dots; flesh whitish, not very fine, melting, juicy, brisk, vinous 
flavor, perfumed ; tree a fair grower, but somewhat affected by fungus. 

Dana's Hovey; syn. Winter Seckel (Massachusetts). — Small, obovate, obtuse 
pyriform; greenish yellow or pale yellow, with much russet and brown dots; 
stalk rather short; a little curved, set in slight cavity, sometimes lipped; calyx 
open and basin small; flesh, yellowish, juicy, melting, sweet, aromatic. 

Vicar of Winkfield (France.) — Large and long pvriform; pale yellow, fair 
and smooth, sometimes with brownish cheek and marked with small brown dots; 
stalk slender, obliquely inserted without depression ; calyx large, open, set in a 
basin very slightly sunk ; flesh greenish yellow, juicy, with good sprightly flavor. 



266 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

Doyenne du Comics (France.) — Large, varying, roundish pyriform, or broad, 
obtuse pyriform; greenish yellow becoming iine yellow, shaded with crimson, 
slightly marked with russet spots, and thickly sprinkled with russet dots ; stalks 
short, stout, inclined and set in shallow cavity, often russetted ; calyx small, open ; 
basin large, deep and uneven ; flesh white, fine, melting, aromatic. Very profitable 
during last few years in eastern shipments. 

Glout Morceau (Flemish). — Rather large, varying in form, but usually short 
pyriform, approaching obtuse oval ; neck very short and obtuse ; body large and 
tapering towards crown ; often considerably ribbed ; green, becoming pale greenish 
yellow ; stalk stout, m.oderately sunk ; calyx large, basin distinct, rather irregu- 
lar ; flesh white, fine-grained, buttery, melting, rich, sweet, and fine flavor. 

Block's Acme (California seedling, b->^ A. Block, of Santa Clara). — Large and 
very handsome, surpassing Beurre Clairgeau in size and color ; regularly formed, 
pyriform, skin pale yellow, covered with russet all over, which becomes a fine 
glowing red on the side exposed to the sun ; flesh white, crisp, and melting, juicy, 
sweet, and slightly musky ; a pear that will rank foremost with our best shipping 
pears; reserved by originator for his own export trade. 

Winter Nelis (Belgium). — Medium, roundi?h, obovate, narrowed in near the 
stalk; yellowish green, dotted with gray russet and a good deal covered with 
russet ; stalk rather long, bent, and set in narrow cavity ; calyx open in shallow 
basin ; flesh yellowish, white, fine grained, buttery, very melting, and full of rich, 
sweet, aromatic juice. 

P. Barry (California seedling, by B. S. FoxV — Fruit large, elongated pyri- 
form, a little obtuse; skin deep yellow, nearly covered with a rich golden russet; 
stalk of medium length and thickness, set rather obliquely on a medium cavity, 
sometimes by a lip; flesh whitish, fine, juicy, melting, sweet, slightly vinous and 
rich. An early and prolific bearer. December to January. P. Barry is recom- 
mended for planting by the Southern California Nurserymen's Association. It 
is, to some extent, displacing the Winter Nelis as a more healthy tree and a 
more certain bearer. Has sold well in eastern shipments. 

Easter Beurre (France). — Large, roundish, obovate obtuse, often rather 
square in figure ; yellowish green, sprinkled with many russet dots and some 
russet patches; stalk rather short, stout, set in an abruptly sunken, obtuse cavity; 
calyx small, closed, but little sunk among plaited folds of angular basin ; flesh 
white, fine grained, very buttery, meltmg, and juicy, sweet, rich flavor; was suc- 
cessfully shipped from California to England as early as 1872. Bears more 
regularly but usually sells for less than Winter Nelis. 

Pound. — Large, pyriform, yellowish-green with red cheek, esteemed for cook- 
ing; reaches enormous size in this State, as already noted. 

Kieffer and Le Conte. — These pears, recently introduced as especially hardy 
varieties, are grown to a limited extent in all parts of the State, but are usually 
condemned as inferior to the European varieties. The Kieffer is best in interior 
regions. 

Crocker's Bartlett (California). — Chance seedling on place of L. L. Crocker, 
Loomis, Placer county. Introduced by Mr. Crocker in 1902. Described in year 
book, 1905, of U. S. Department of Agriculture; medium to large, oblong, obo- 
vate, pyriform ; rich golden yellow, somewhat russetty ; quality very good ; keeps 
until March. Claimed to be blight-resistant and regularly productive. 

Winter Bartlett (Oregon). — CThance seedling in a dooryard in Eugene, Oregon. 
Introduced in California by Geo. C. Roeding, of Fresno. Closely resembles 
Bartlett in shape and appearance and flavor but a little coarser ; ripens four 
months later than Bartlett in interior situations in California and promising as 
a winter pear. Abandoned by some growers for coarseness and disliked by 
canners for developing a pink color. 



TABULATED STATEMENT 267 

Pear Varieties Approved by California Growers. 



V'ARTFTTFC Upper Central Interior Mountain California 

VARIETIES. coast coast valley and valley and Southern 

. , ,^ ^'alleys. valleys. foothill. plateaux. Coast 

Angouleine (Duchess) * * « * ^ 

An j ou * * ^ ^ 

Bartlctt ** ** ** ^^ •;; 

Bosc * * i^ 

Clairgeau * * ^ ''^ --^ 

Clapp's F'avorite * * 

Cornice * ** ^, 

Easter Beurre * *♦ *t ' ' ' ■ • 

Flemish Beauty * * « '"i ^ 

Glout Morceau * ** 4< ^ 

Hardy, Beurre * * " ' ^ 

Howell * * ;„ ■■■ ^ 

Kieffer * " ' ■ 

J ... * * * 

Lawson 

Louise, Bonne de Jersey.... * * 

Madeleine * * ' ' ^ 

P. Barry ** ^* * ^ 

Scckel * * i^ ^^ 

Souvenir de Congres ***** 

Vicar of Winkficld * * 

Wilder, Early * "i 

White Doyenne * * * 

Winter Bartlett * * * 

Winter Nelis * ** ** '"i 



** 



^'Moiry^d^:^l'i'!llL':':}^ '^ ^PP'-^^-l - the region designated. 



•Most highly commended 



CHAPTER XXIII 
PLUMS AND PRUNES* 

The plums of California are exceptionally fine in appearance and 
of high quality. Both tree and fruit have thus far escaped the parasites 
which have wrought greatest injury on the eastern side of the 
continent. The curculio has never been found here, and the "black 
knot," though detected in some of the indigenous species of the 
genus prunusj has never been observed in our orchards. The tree 
suffers, it is true, as do most other fruit trees, from various pests and 
diseases but their work is a light afifliction compared with the ravages 
of the curculio and black knot which Eastern plum growers have to 
contend against. Because of reduced planting during the last few 
years, the plum stands second in point of number among the fruit trees 
of California, for, as noted in Chapter XX, the peach now holds first 
place. Of the plums, at least four-fifths of the acreage are those 
varieties designated as prunes. This is, of course, owing to the profita- 
ble shipping demand for our prune product, while ordinary dried, pitted 
plums are expensive in production and do not always command good 
prices. There is, however, a large trade at the East in our fine plums 
in a fresh state. Some varieties stand shipment well, and are large, 
handsome and in some cases possessed of unique characters, resulting 
from Mr. Burbank's work with the Japanese species as will be noted 
later. Considerable shipments of fresh plums have been made from 
California to England. 

By choosing varieties ripening in succession, the plum season 
extends from May to December, thus enabling the California plum 
grower to strike the Eastern markets both early and late. It is on 
record also, that second crop plums have ripened. In 1904 Judge Leib, 
of San Jose, sent to Luther Burbank, on December 1, ripe fruit from 
a tree which ripened its first crop on July 4, of the same year. 

There is also considerable demand for plums by the canners who 
do not use, however, the varieties in chief demand for shipping. 



LOCALITIES FOR THE PLUM 

The plum has an exceedingly wide range in California. The trees 
are thrifty and profitable even from the immediate vicinity of the coast 
and in coast valleys, where the sea winds and fogs intrude eastward 
across the great interior valleys, and upwards upon the sides of the 
Sierra Nevada. In the upper half of the State, at least, wherever there 

*A11 prunes are plums, but all plums are not prunes. A prune is a plum which can be 
dried without the removal of the pit without fermenting: The result being a fleshy pulp 
with a high degree of sweetness. All plums which will not do this are not prunes, even 
though the word may appear in their California common names. 

fFound on primus demissa, in Yosemite Valley and in Coast Range in San Mateo 
County, by Dr. H. W. Harkness. Report State Board of Horticulture, 1883, pp. 54, 55. 

268 



I 



LOCALITIES FOR PLUMS AND PRUNES 269 

is sufficient moisture in the soil, good plums can be grown. The tree 
is quite hardy, but in situations open to the sweep of the winds there 
has been found to be decided advantage in belts of sheltering trees for 
protection. At some points subject to direct coast influences, there is 
sometimes loss by cracking of the fruit. It is seldom encountered in 
the interior valley, except near the rivers or in draws where the damp 
coast air makes its way through. It seems to be worst where there are 
marked differences in atmospheric humidity within short periods of 
time. Where the percentage is quite uniformly high or low there seems 
to be less trouble. Some years conditions usually restricted to more 
exposed coast situations prevail in the interior valley, and the result is 
unusual prevalence of mildew and other moist fungi and cracking of 
fruit also, though they have no relation to each other except that the 
same conditions favor both. Only certain varieties are thus affected, 
and they can be avoided where the trouble is found to exist. 

It was for a long time held that southern California was not 
adapted to the growth of the plum, but the experience of the last few 
years has shown that the conclusion was too broad. The "French 
prune" demonstrated its success adjacent to the Coast in Santa Barbara 
County, and elsewhere, in the low, rich lands of the Santa Ana Valley, 
of Orange County, in the interior at various points on the rim of the 
San Gabriel X'alley, in Los Angeles County, notably at Pomona, and 
still farther inland in the San Bernardino Valley, but the Southern 
California prune product is small because the land and water can be 
more profitably used for other fruits. There is, however, difficulty in 
some dry uplands where the tree is shy in fruiting and subject to serious 
gumming; but this is encountered locally in all parts of the State. Irri- 
gation does not always overcome these troubles, and yet, no doubt, the 
arrangement of proper moisture conditions is important. The tree 
should be helped to make one good growth and to ripen its wood in 
the fall. To have growth checked by drouth and a second start made 
later in the season is not desirable. 

Still it must be admitted that prune planting in the interior, pro- 
ceeding with such rapidity, has encountered some soils and situations 
in which bearing has not been altogether satisfactory. New planters 
should confer with older residents before making investments in prune 
planting in interior valleys and foothills. 

All the foregoing observations are based upon the behavior of 
plums of Eurojjean origin; descendants of the prunns domcstica. One 
of the grandest contributions to the extension of the range of the plum 
in California was the introduction of the Asiatic species, primus 
triftora and siinoni. Varieties of these species directly introduced or 
locally developed by Burbank and others, have proved productive in 
places where the domcstica varieties were abandoned as shy or sterile. 
To estimate the value of these varieties one has only to visit the home 
fruit gardens of southern California or inspect the fruit stands of Los 
Angeles which are continuous exhibits of fine specimens of these 
varieties in their seasons. Even in places where the domcstica varieties 
are largely grown the Asiatic varieties are also prominent as is shown 



270 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

by the fact that the Wickson, a Burbank triflora-simoni hybrid, is the 
leading shipping plum of California, and shipping plums are chiefly 
grown in the central and northern regions of the State. Other notable 
Burbank plums of recent introduction will be included in the descrip- 
tions of varieties at close of this chapter. 



SOILS AND STOCKS FOR THE PLUM 

With the plum, as with the apricot, the subject of soils and stocks 
are intimately related, but the whole matter has been wonderfully 
simplified by the experience of the last few years. This relief has 
come through the adoption of the myrobalan, or cherry plum (prunus 
my rob alar ia) has a general all-around stock for plums and prunes. 
Before this practice was taken up the efifort to grow the plum on its 
own roots generally resulted in getting: an orchard full of suckers, and 
to avoid this, plums were worked on peach roots wherever this root 
would succeed in the soil to be planted. But some varieties of plums 
do not take kindly to the peach, and then "double working" (putting 
first on the peach a plum which is known to take well and then on that 
plum wood the variety desired) was followed. The use of the myro- 
balan does away with the suckering nuisance, and the need of double 
working. 

There was considerable discussion a few years ago as to what is 
the true myrobalan, and it must be acknowledged that some of the 
refined distinctions formerly claimed have been abandoned. Seedlings 
grown from the seed of the myrobalan vary as do other fruit seedlings, 
both in fruit and in foliage and habit of trees, and perhaps this fact 
has given rise to the distinction between "true" and "false" myrobalan, 
so-called. Practice has proceeded without much reference to the 
discussion, and our nurserymen now have large, thrifty myrobalan 
trees from which they secure their seed supply. Growing stock 
from myrobalan cuttings is but little practiced. The myrobalan is now 
the accepted plum stock for California, except in light, alluvial, well 
drained soils, where, for the French prune, peach or almond may be 
preferred. Though described by some authorities as a dwarfing stock, 
it is found to be sufficiently free growing in California to suit all 
purposes, and to form a good foundation for full standard trees, though 
the peach and almond roots in proper soils give a quicker and greater 
growth. Experience has shown that the myrobalan root thrives in 
this State both in low, moist, valley lands, in comparatively dry lands, 
if not too light and leachy, and in stiflf upland soils. 

In some soils especially adapted to the peach, peach roots are 
preferred as stock for the French prune, but, as already said, all plums 
can not be worked directly on the peach root, the Robe de Sergeant, 
Columbia, Yellow Egg, Washington, and Sugar Prune, for example. 
Sometimes the bud or scion may make a large growth, but the two 
woods do not unite, and the trees break off sooner or later. 

Some work the plum on the apricot root, and report success when 
the soil suits the apricot root, and the gophers do not get at it. But it 



PLANTING PLUMS AND PRUNES 271 

sometimes happens that the French prune parts from the apricot root 
even after g^rowing some time upon it. There are, however, instances 
of the French prune thrivinpf, and, apparently makinj^ orood union with 
the apricot root and some of the softer wood varieties, hke the Sugai 
Prune, take kindly to it. 

Some plums do well on the almond root and some do not. Tht 
French prune succeeds admirably both when worked on young almond 
stocks and top grafted in old almond trees. Success is also reported 
with the Fellenberg on the almond. But the almond root is suited 
especially for warm, dry soils. Excellent results from the use of 
almond stock are reported from the interior valley and the Sierra 
foothills. 

Propagating by Sprouts. — The French practice of growing cer- 
tain varieties of the plum by means of sprouts from the base of old trees 
was successfully followed in this State by Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, 
and was strongly commended by him as securing a tree which will not 
gum, which is one of the reasons why the same practice prevails in 
France. Sprouts growing at the foot of old and large trees, and but 
few are found to each tree, are taken off and planted close together in 
a bed to make them root well, and the ensuing spring planted in nur- 
sery rows, where they are trained like any other trees, and transplanted 
where to remain, when branched. For this method it is necessary that 
the parent tree should be upon its own roots, else one is apt to get 
suckers from a wild stock. Sprout-grown trees can not, however, be 
defended unless some special point like that claimed by Mr. Gillet can 
be attained bv them. 

PLANTING AND PRUNING 

As with other trees, there is difference of opinion as to the best dis- 
tance apart for plum trees. The present tendency is toward wider 
planting; not nearer than twenty feet is the usual advice, and on rich 
land, twenty-two or twenty-four feet is better. 

The plum, in California, is a most rapid grower ; six to ten feet from 
the bud or graft in a season, and about as much after the first winter's 
cutting back, is not at all unusual. At this rate of progress then, the 
tree soon runs up and away, in a spindling, sprawling fashion, unless 
severely cut back for the first few years. Neglected trees of some va- 
rieties show long, streaming branches, arching outward, and exposing 
the bark to sunburn (to which it is very sensitive), breaking the tree 
to pieces as the fruit gets weight, and, even if supported by props, 
breakiner off at the bearing of the prop. This condition of the tree 
can only be obviated by low heading and moderate cutting back each 
year, with due regard to limiting the amount of bearing wood to get 
large fruit. For such plum varieties the suggestions on forming the 
tree and subsequent treatment in Chapter XII will be found helpful. 
This reference to repressive treatment for brittle-wood plums is em- 
phasized by experienoe with the Sugar Prune and Golden Prune, of 
which Mr. Leonard Coates of Morgan Hill says: 



272 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS*. HOW TO GROW THEM 



"The sugar prune is a great bearer, but the tree must receive very different 
pruning from that of the French prune. The annual growth must be shortened 
in every winter from one-half to two-thirds, and all laterals and fruit spurs must 
be cut back at every pruning. Of course, judicious thinning out of wood is also 
needed. This will result in a very large, showy, product for long-distance ship- 
ments, as fresh fruits, which have brought satisfactory returns." 

Pruning the French Prune. — Growers of the French prune, and 
Other varieties of similar growth of strong and pHable wood, have 
reached substantial agreement as to the best practice. The old method 
of cutting back bearing trees has been abandoned. Cutting back the 
young tree to secure sufficient low branching is followed by thinning 





Pruning after first summer's 
growth in orchard. 



Growth during second summer 
in orchard. 



of shoots from this low head so that the tree shall not become too dense 
or carry too much bearing wood. The strength in the head depends 
upon proper spacing and arrangement of the branches as insisted upon 
in the chapter on pruning ; and large, well-ripened fruit, which is essen- 
tial to successful and profitable drying, is conditioned upon avoiding 
excess of branches and admission of sufficient light to the tree. 

A rather longer central stem is retained than in the old style, and 
a central stem throughout is admissible if one prefers it and does not 
desire to dispense with it as the first step toward securing a more open 
tree. Some retain the longer stem at planting, others cut back to 



PRUNING THE FRENCH PRUNE 273 

eighteen inches, develop three side branches ujx)n that and train the 
branch from the top bud for a lengthening of the stein, and bring out 
more branches upon that the second year, and then dispense with its 
farther extension. The engravings on page 272 show this method of 
developing the head of a young French prune. The tree was cut back 
at planting in orchard to a straight switch about eighteen inches high. 
At the end of the first summer this showed the form in the first picture, 
which is marked for the first winter pruning. The second engraving 
shows the branching developed from this during the second summer's 
growth, also marked to prune away some undesirable branches. Upon 
a tree of this form further cutting back is not desirable as it has enough 
well-placed branches to form the tree. 

How long cutting back shall continue depends partly upon the local- 
ity and partly upon the notion of the owner. In interior localities the 
tree grows with great rapidity and branches more freely. During the 
third summer it will bear some fruit if not cut back the previous winter, 
and, where growth is so rapid, there is little danger of injuring the 
tree by early bearing. In the coast valleys cutting back may continue 
another year, and fruiting be thus postponed a year to get another 
summer's freer wood growth. 

Though cutting back may properly cease early with the French 
prune, it is a great mistake to allow the trees to go unpruned. Removal 
of defective wood, prevention of branch crowding and overbearing 
are of the highest importance, as insisted upon in the chapter on prun- 
ing. Removing surplus laterals at their starting points, and cutting 
back leaders to laterals already grown and not to encourage new branch- 
ing will result in a more open tree, which is generally very desirable. 

Special Studies of Varieties in Pruning. — The points just ad- 
vanced apply especially to the management of the French prune. In 
addition to what has been already said about the Sugar prune, the 
grower must be exhorted to study the habit of the variety he has to 
deal with. The general rules for handling trees with different habits 
of growth are applicable to a certain extent to the plum. When to 
apply a rule or make an exception must be learned by observation and 
experience. Some plums, like the Silver prune, have something of the 
growth habit of the peach, and this is also very true of some of the 
Japanese varieties. Cutting back in winter and pinching in summer 
are both useful facts in securing lower branching and low-growing 
fruit spurs. 

The formation of the vase-form with continuous laterals, as dis- 
cussed in Chapters XII and XX is being successfully practiced by 
some growers with plum varieties which need short pruning. 

Grafting the Plum. — The plum has been grafted and regrafted 
in the constant effort to secure varieties promising superiority in va- 
rious directions. Within the scope of their affinities plums graft easily 
by common top-grafting methods, and if the roots are strong the new 
growth is so rapid as to need special attention. Mr. Luther Bowers 
gives these hints about pruning such growths : "From practical ex- 
perience I have found out that the Sugar prune wood should only be 



274 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

summer pruned and only cut while the shoots are tender, or so soft 
that the top can be pinched out ; this will cause the top to be well 
branched and this should be done at least twice during the first year 
of the graft. This system will avoid long, slender limbs. After a 
graft is two years old I would never cut the top off of a limb. If a 
tree gets too thick a top, I would cut out some of the main branches." 



THE PLUMCOTS 

One of the most striking achievements of Mr. Burbank from the 
fruit grower's point of view is the cross of the plum and the apricot, 
which he has very fitly named the "plumcot." He has combined in a 
single fruit enough of the diverse characters of two fruits so that the 
ordinary observer can recognize the combination clearly and distinguish 
the gift of each to it. Mr. Burbank has secured several such crosses, 
the first of which to be made public is the "Rutland," introduced by 
Mr. George C. Roeding in 1907. The fruit is about the size of an 
ordinary apricot with a deep purple velvety skin. One of its striking 
features is the brilliant red flesh possessed of a strong sub-acid flavor 
rendering it suitable for cooking, jellies and jams, and it is in good 
demand for such uses. When fully ripe, it is an excellent dessert fruit 
possessing an apricot-plum flavor. The amalgamation of the apricot 
and the plum has produced a fruit unique in character, and its economic 
value is still to be determined by the exploitation of its uses. 



HOW A PRUNE QUEST DISTURBED THE PLUM FAMILY 
IN CALIFORNIA 

Referring to the distinction between plums and prunes cited at the 
opening of this chapter, and to the extent and methods of the great 
prune industry of the State which will appear in Chapter XXXVIII, it 
may be stated here that the California prune product was obviously 
undertaken in emulation of the globe-trotting French prune, which 
had attained position as the leading commercial dried fruit of the world 
long before California arose on the horticultural horizon. Naturally, 
French settlers in California bethought themselves of transplanting 
this great industry to their new home, and Mr. Louis Pellier introduced 
scions from the district of Agen to his place near San Jose in 1856. 
the product was good, and planting for a large output was entered 
upon, though slowly at first. There was disappointment over the fact 
that, while all fruits came surprisingly large in California, the dried 
prunes were smaller than the great French prunes in cartons and canis- 
ters which sold for great prices. Had we secured the true French 
prune ; did they not have larger ones which they were holding back 
from us ? This was the great question of five decades ago. Some nur- 
serymen of that day had spirits of enterprise larger than their con- 
sciences. If the people demand larger prunes they must have them, 



THE EFFORT TO GET A PERFECT PRUNE 275 

surely. Because of the small average size of the prunes of Pellier's 
introduction, they christened that variety "petite prune d'Agen," which 
was subsequently corrupted into "petty prune" — a free translation and 
a mispronunciation at the same time, for a prune which seemed to be 
too small and inferior. The people must have something large, and 
propagators offered trees of the "gros prune d'Agen," or the "Hun- 
garian prune." It was a double misnomer, because Europe does not 
have any "gros prune d'Agen" and the variety did not come from either 
France or Hungary, but was the old large light red, English plum, 
properly called Pond's Seedling, re-christened in California to meet a 
long- felt want. But it did not meet such a want; it would not dry 
sweet nor fleshy, but became merely a skin and pit, with a sour streak 
between. Still the question persisted : Have we the true French prune ? 
It was definitely settled by the late W. B. West of Stockton, who visited 
France in 1878, and after close examination of the trees, announced 
that the variety grown in California was really the prune d'Agen, and 
that we had made no mistake so far as getting the main standard 
variety of French prune was concerned. 

But still we needed a variety which would run more to large sizes, 
and how to get it, with sweetness and flesh, characters which would 
resemble the best French product, was, and even now is, still a question. 
One of the early introductions to meet this end is now generally known 
as Robe de Sergeant. Here again confusion attends the name. Robe 
de Sergeant is one of the synonyms of prune d'Agen, and yet the fruit 
we secured was different. Much discussion was given to the elucida- 
tion of this problem, and the conclusion seemed to be that the variety 
is grown in France, but in another district, and is generally considered 
inferior to the prune d'Agen. Still it runs larger, and has sold well, 
even though of distinctly different quality, and would probably have 
cut a much larger figure in California prune production if it had shown 
itself to be more free and regular in bearing. Next came the "prune 
d'ente, or Imperial epineuse," introduced at about the same time by 
John Rock and Felix Gillet, which has been quite widely planted, but 
because of shy bearing, especially when attacked by the thrips, and 
because of the difificulty in drying such a large prune, this variety, of 
which so much was expected, has fallen into disfavor for the low lands 
of the Santa Clara Valley, though on the mountains west of this valley 
and in the prune valleys north of the Bay of San Francisco it has 
proved very popular and profitable when planted on uplands. 

Other introductions made much earlier, like the German and Italian, 
also fell out of the race very early, for shy bearing and for different 
flesh characters. Although the latter leads in Oregon and other States 
north of us, it is out of California calculations. The conclusion of the 
whole matter now is that we have never secured from abroad a better 
than the one which came fifty years ago — the true prune d'Agen. We 
have learned to grow it better, to seek places where it grows larger 
and in full quality ; to use irrigation when it is needed by the tree to do 
its best ; to guard against overbearing by reducing the amount of bear- 
ing wood and excessive branching; to strengthen the soil by fertiliza- 
tion, and to grade the fruit into sizes which commend themselves to 



276 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

different demands. Here we are again, doing our main business at the 
old stand, but knowing how to do it better. Have we anything more to 
expect? Probably nothing from old varieties, for we have prospected 
them all from a prune-making point of view, taking Coe's Golden Drop 
plum, or its seedling, for the Silver Prune, and canceling all others as 
possibly good plums for various uses, but not for prunes. 

Probably our only expectation lies along the line of plant breeding, 
although nothing to supplant the prune d'Agen has yet been attained. 
The Giant prune is a large red plum ; several Oregon prunes are simply 
large red plums. The standard of sugar in the prune d'Agen as grown 
in California is from 15 to 23 per cent of sugar in the fresh juice, ac- 
cording to degree of ripeness and localities in which the fruit is grown. 
The sugar in Pond's Seedling and in the large red plums just named 
is less than 10 per cent — sometimes very much less. But percentage 
of sugar in the juice is not the whole story; there are tissue or flesh 
characters which are essential also. Mr. Burbank's Sugar prune an- 
swers the sugar requirement ; it is a free bearer and early ripening 
variety, and it dries easily though large, and the small dried product 
thus far made has sold well, but it has not the fine grain nor distinctive 
flavor of the prune d'Agen, and the pit is large and rough. It becomes 
a good plum for shipping and possibly for other plum purposes. But 
Mr. Burbank has held the plum family in training, and his latest intro- 
duction, the Standard prune, seems to be making good, and in 1914 is 
being widely planted. 

Others are also working at the problem, and the next generation of 
California prune growers may attain what the last and present have 
striven for. The most promising line at the present time is the search 
for better types of the prune d'Agen which are found here and there, 
arising from natural variation. Mr. Leonard Coates of Morgan Plill 
is giving particular attention to this subject, and has demonstrated the 
existence of very superior variations. 



POLLINATION OF PLUMS 

The shy bearing of certain plums is probably due to lack of pollina- 
tion, either through the self-sterility of the variety or lack of acceptable 
pollinating agencies. Bearing can be induced in many cases, no doubt, 
by either planting or grafting-in of effective pollinating varieties. But 
this is not always profitable. For instance, there are many instances 
proving that the Tragedy can be brought to greater bearing by the 
presence of Clyman, but an early variety like the Clyman is not worth 
growing for sale in a late district, though in an early district both are 
valuable as shipping plums and should be planted together. The Hun- 
garian is well pollinated by the Peach and the Grand Duke plums. The 
bearing of Wickson is greatly increased by association with Climax The 
pollination of plums not not yet, however, been given as much attention 
as of other fruits. 



TABULATED STATEMENT 



277 



Plums and Prunes Approved by California Growers. 



Mountain 
valleys and 
plateaux 


California 

Southern 

Coast. 




** 


** 


*» 



l'p|icr Central Interior 

VARIETIES. const coast valley and 

valleys. valleys. foothill. 

Abundance ... * 

Agen, Prune d' ** ** *♦ 

Bradshaw * ... * 

Burbank * *♦ ** 

California Red ... * 

Chalco ... * 

Climax * ** 

Clynian * ** 

Coe's Late Red ... * 

Columbia * * * 

Damson * * * 

Diamond * ** 

Formosa * ** 

German Prune * ... * 

Giant * ** 

Golden Drop, Coe's * * * 

Golden Prune ** 

Grand Duke * ** 

Green Gage * 

Hale ... * 

Imperial Epineuse * ** * 

Imperial Gage ... * 

Italian Prune * * * 

Jefferson * ** * 

Kelsey . . .■ * * ** 

Peach * * * 

Pond (Hungarian) * * ** 

Red June * ... * 

Robe de Sergeant ** ** 

Santa Rosa * * 

Satsuma * * * 

Silver * * * 

Standard * * 

Sugar * ** ** 

Tragedy ** ** 

Washington * * * 

Wickson * ** ** 

Yellow Egg * ** ** 

•Indicates that the variety is approved in the region designated. 
**Most highly corrmended. 



* 
** 



VARIETIES OF PLUMS AND PRUNES 



As with other fruits, comparatively few varieties of the phim are 
lar^-cly j^rown in California, and the list is continually changing by 
rejection of old varieties and introduction of new which are largely of 
Burbank origin : 

Siiuon (Prunus Simoni). — Medium to large, roundish, flattened, with cavities 
at base and apex ; brick red, small yellow spots ; stalk stout and short ; flesh yel- 
low, adhering to flattened pit ; largely grown for shipment in early interior 
regions where it has good quality: lacks flavor and cracks badly near the 
coast. Being displaced by Burbank varieties. 

Climax (Burbank). — Large; very early; heart-shaped; deep red; flesh yellow. 
Popular for shipping in places where it does not crack badly. Growing in favor. 



278 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Clyman (California seedling introduced by Leonard Coates). — Large, round- 
ish oblong, flattened suture indistinct ; mottled reddish purple, beautiful blue 
bloom; freestone; flesh firm, dry and sweet; prolific; the leading early plum for 
shipment. 

Red June (Japanese). — Medium to large, deep red flesh light yellow, firm, 
good quality. The best of the early Japanese plums. 

California Blue. — Seedling of Peach plum by W. W. Smith, Vacaville ; large, 
good flavor; early; "first really good blue plum." 

Tragedy (California seedling). — Medium to large, suture shallow, wide and 
extending beyond apex ; dark purple ; flesh yellowish green, sweet and well 
flavored ; freestone. Very valuable for shipping from early regions in all parts 
of the State. Largest in amount of shipments in 1913. 

Abundance (Japanese). — syns. Yellow-fleshed Botan, Mikado of Hinclay. — 
Large, globular with point at apex ; cherry color covered with white bloom ; 
flesh yellow, juicy anl rich. Popular for shipment from eary regions. 

California Red (California seedling). — Introduced by J. T. Bogue, of Marys- 
ville. Large, light red, firm flesh and small pit. A good shipping plum. 

Peach (French, prune peche). — ^Very large, roundish oblate, regular, flattened 
at ends ; suture distinct, shhallow ; color varying from salmon to light brownish 
red; stalk very short, cavity narrow, shallow, flesh rather coarse, juicy sprightly, 
free from the nearly round, very flat, much furrowed stone ; shoots smooth. 
Becoming less prominent variety for early eastern shipment. 

Femmonzi (probably domestica seedling). — Found in pioneer orchard of Mr. 
Crooks, Madera county, foothills. Grown and made public by Frank Femmons, 
for whom it was named by Leonard Coates. A very large, handsome, dark 
plum, sweet and rich and good in shipment. 

Royale Hative (French). — Medium roundish, slightly wider at base; light 
purple stalk half an inch long, stout, scarcely sunk; flesh amber yellow, with rich, 
high flavor, nearly free from the small, flattened, ovate stone ; shoots very 
downy. Grown as an early market plum for eastern shipment. 

Bradshaw. — Large, obovate, with obtuse suture on one side, sometimes with 
very slight neck; dark purple, with light blue bloom; stalk three-fourths inch 
long; cavity narrow; flesh a little coarse, becoming light brownish purple, at 
first adhering, but becom.ing nearly free when fully ripe ; juicy, good, slightly 
acid ; tree vigorous ; shoots purple, smooth. Reported from Sacramento county 
as blooming late and seldom injured by frost. Not in high favor. 

Green Gage {French). — Rather small, round; suture faint green, becoming 
yellowish green, usually with reddish brown dots and network at base ; stalk 
half to three-fourths inch, scarcely sunk; flesh pale green, melting, juicy, exceed- 
ingly rich, and flavor excellent ; shoots smooth. 

Burbank. — Tree imported from Japan by Luther Burbank. Named "Burbank" 
by Professor Van Deman. Tree usually vigorous, with strong, upright shoots, 
and large, rather broad leaves ; comes into bearing very early. Almost globular, 
being five and a half inches around horizontally, and five and five-eighths inches 
around vertically; rich cherry red, slightly mottled with yellow, and freely 
dotted with same tint; flesh deep yellow, juicy, very sweet, and of fine, somewhat 
peculiar, but very agreeable flavor; pit is very small, three-fourths by a trifle 
over half an inch in diameter. Next to Tragedy in amount of shipments to the 
east in 1913. 

Duane's Purple (New York). — Very large, oblong oval, longer on one side; 
slightly narrowed towards the stalk; reddish purple, bloom lilac; stalk three- 
fourths inch ; slender ; cavity narrow, flesh juicy, moderately sweet, and moderate 
flavor, mostly adhering to stone ; shoots very downy and leaves large and downy 
underneath. 

Washington (New York). — ^Very large, roundish oval, suture obscure, distinct 
at base; yellowish green, faintly marbled, often with pale red blush; stalk half 
to three-fourths inch; slightly downy; cavity wide, shallow; flesh rather firm, 
sweet, mild, very rich and luscious, free from the pointed stone; shoots downy; 
very vigorous. 

Grand Duke. — Large oval, necked ; deep purple with blue bloom ; flesh greenish 
yellow, fair quality. A good shipper, following Hungarian in ripening. 



DESCRIPTIONS OF POPULAR PLUMS 279 

U'icksoti. — A crossbred by Luther Burbank ; form suggests the Kclsey, but 
more symmetrical ; in ripening the color develops from a deep cherry red down 
to a rich claret as full ripeness is attained. The color is ?olid and uniform. The 
flesh is of amber tint, very juicy and translucent; the pit is small and shapely, 
the flavor is striking and agreeable, but likely to be deficient near the coast. The 
most popular shipping plum in the State, judged by numl'cr of growers reporting 
favorably, but not largest in eastern shipments in 1913. 

Vcllow Ess; syns. White Ess, IVhitc Masnuin Bottum (English). — Very 
large, oval, narrow at ends, necked at base, suture disttinct; stalk one inch, not 
sunk, surrounded by fleshy ring at insertion ; light yellow, bloom thin, white, 
flesh firm, rather acid until fully ripe, and then sweet, adheres to the pointed 
stone. 

Jefferson {Kew York). — Large, oval, base slightly narrowed, suture slight; 
greenish yellow, becoming golden, with reddish cheek; bloom thin, white; stalk 
one inch, but little sunk or not at all; flesh rich yellow, very rich, juicy, high 
flavored and luscious, adheres partly to its long, pointed stone; shoots smooth; 
tree a slow grower, but productive. 

Columbia (New York). — Very large, nearly globular, one side slightly larger; 
brownish purple, reddish brown where much shaded, with many fawn-colored 
dot? ; bloom blue, copious • stalk one mch, rather stout ; cavity small ; flesh 
orange, very rich and sweet, free from the stone, which is very small and com- 
pressed. Shoots downy, stout, blunt, spreading ; leaves nearly round. 

Satstntta; syn. Blood Plum of Satsuma. — Introduced and first fruited in this 
country by Luther Burbank. of Santa Rosa. Described by Prof. H. E. Van 
Dcman, U. S. Pomologist, as follows : "Leaves more lanceolate than those of 
Kelsey; fruit averages about two and a quarter inches in diameter, nearly round, 
and but slightly sutured on one side ; surface dark red, under a thick bloom ; 
dots rather conspicuous and numerouF ; flesh dark purplish red, which has caused 
the name of 'Blood Plum of Satsuma' to be given by some ; stone very small and 
pointed." Chiefly grown in Southern California for local use and trade. 

Red MiTs>itiiii Bonum; syn. Red Ess- — Large, oval, tapering to the stalk; 
suture strong, one side swollen ; deep red in the sun ; slight bloom ; stalk one inch, 
slender, cavity narrow ; flesh greenish, coarse, subacid ; shoots smooth. 

Diamond. — Large, deep purple; handsome but not high quality; ripens after 
Japanese and sells well at the east as a cooking plum. 

Imperial Case (New York). — Medium size, oval, suture distinct; stalk three- 
fourths inch, slightly hairy, evenly sunk; green, slightly tinged with yellow, with 
marbled green stripes; bloom copious and white; flesh greenish, juicy, melting, 
rich, and delicious, usually free from the oval, pointed stone ; tree very vigorous 
and productive ; shoots long upright, slightly downy ; leaves with slight shade 
of blue. A popular canning variety. 

Damson (English). — Small, roundish, oval; purple, with thick blue bloom; 
melting, juicy, subacid. 

German Prune (Common Quetsche, Germany). — "This name has been applied 
in this State to numerous plums and prunes which are sold under it. The fruit 
of the true German prune is long oval, and swollen on one side; skin purple, with 
thick blue bloom ; flesh firm, green, sweet, with a peculiar pleasant flavor ; sepa- 
rates readily from the stone." — John Rock. Complaint is made in many localities 
of the tendency of the variety to drop before ripening, almost the whole crop 
sometimes dropping. 

Kelsey. Japan. — Trees brought from Japan by the late Mr. Hough, of Vaca- 
ville, in 1870, and purchased by the late John Kelsey, of Berkeley, who propa- 
gated and fruited them for several years. First wide distriliution was made by 
W. P. Hammon & Co., in 1874, who named the fruit after Mr. Kelsey. The 
following description is by H. E. Van Dcman, U. S. Pomologist, from California 
and Florida specimens : "Tree upright in growth, leaves narrow, twigs brownish 
gray. Fruit from one ^pd a half to two and a half inches diameter, heart-shaped, 
with 3 distinct suture on one side from stem to apex; stem is short, and set in 
a depression at the larger end; colors mixed yellow and purple, which vary in 
depth, but rarely make a brilliant appearance, covered with a bloom ; flesh yellow, 



280 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

very firm, and clings to the stone, which is rather small, and nearly always partly 
surrounded by a cavity; when fully ripe the quality is very good." Very widely 
grown ; is in less favor than formerly in interior valleys where color is not well 
developed. Where the fruit is of good color it is profitable for shipping and is 
highly regarded everywhere for domestic use. 

Quackenbos (New York). — Large, oblong oval; deep purple; suture faint; 
stalk short, slightly sunk; slightly coarse, sprightly, sweet and subacid; partly 
freestone. 

Victoria (English). — Large, obovate, suture distinct; color a fine light reddish 
purple ; stem half inch, cavity rather deep and narrow ; flesh yellow, pleasant ; 
clingstone ; next to Pond's Seedling in size, beauty and productiveness. 

Hungarian Prune; English Pond's Seedling; Gros Prune d'Agen (English). — 
This variety was brought to San Jose probably about 1856, and in some unac- 
countable way was first contrasted with the French prune and called the "great 
prune of Agen;" afterwards, also in a mysterious way, it took the name of 
"Hungarian prune." It is still marketed by these names both here and at the 
East. The true name is English Pond's Seedling. Fruit very large, ovate, 
slightly tapering to stalk; skin thick, reddish violet, with numerous brown dots, 
and covered with handsome bloom; rather coarse, juicy, sweet; a very showy 
fruit ; tree a strong grower and 'prolific bearer ; fruit has a tendency to double ; 
sells well in local and distant markets on its style and is largely grown. Third 
in amounts of eastern shipments in 1913. 

Giant. — Burbank seedling; very large, dark crimson upon yellow ground; 
flesh yellow, flavor good ; freestone. A shipping plum, disappointing as a drying 
plum. 

Splendor.— -E\irh5.r\\<. seedling; medium size but larger than French prune; 
clear red, drying dark, does not shake from the tree ; earlier than French prune. 

Sugar.^ — Burbank seedling, introduced in 1898 ; large and sweet ; sugar in 
fresh fruit 23.92 per cent ; not of highest quality as a cured prune but sells well ; 
also good for shipping; oval, slightly flattened; dark purple with thick white 
bloom ; freestone ; early. Needs pruning and thinning to secure size. 

Standard. — Burbank cross of Sugar and Tragedy. Large, purple, blue bloom; 
flesh fine grained, amber juicy and sweet; freestone; earlier than French prune. 
Satisfactory shipping plum and considered of great promise for drying. 

Imperial Epineuse syn. Chirac Mammoth. — Introduced in 1884 by Felix Gillet 
and in 1886 by John Rock. Described by Mr. Rock as follows: "Uniformly 
large size, reddish or light purple, thin skin, sweet and high flavor." Described 
by Mr. Gillet : "Uniformly large, more oval than the French prune ; nearly of 
the same color but somewhat hghter or reddish nurple; earlier than the French 
and with thinner skin." Fruit grown by Mr. Rock analyzed at the State Uni- 
versity in 1898, showed 20.4 per cent of sugar against 18.53 per cent average of 
three analyses of French prune. Blooms about ten days earlier and ripens about 
three weeks earlier than the French prune. 

There has been quite widely planted another prune called Imperial which is 
very inferior in sugar content and Hkely to prove much less satisfactory. 

Prune d'Agen; syn. Petite Prune d'Agen; French Prune, etc. — This is the 
drying prune at present most widely grown in this State. It is described by 
John Rock as follows : "Medium-sized, egg-shaped, violet purple, very sweet, 
rich, and sugary; very prolific bearer." The leading drying-prune of California, 
commonly called "California French prune." Its standing is sketched in detail 
on a preceding page. 

Robe de Sergeant. — Though this term is given in Downing as a synonym of 
prune d'Agen, and seems to be in French a synonym for the d'Ente prunes ; 
another prune grown in this State from an importation by John Rock, is quite 
distinct from the foregoing. Mr. Rock describes the variety as follows : "Fruit 
medium size, oval ; skin deep purple, approaching black, and covered with a 
thick blue bloom ; flesh greenish yellow, sweet, and well-flavored, sugary, rich and 
delicious, slightly adhering to the stone." This variety makes a larger, darker- 
colored dried prune than the prune d'Agen, and has sold in some cases at a higher 
price. It has recently been in disfavor in coast valleys for defective bearing, but 
is more satisfactory at some interior points. 



DESCRIPTIONS OF POPULAR PLUMS 281 

Bulgarian. — "An undetermined variety grown under this name, chiefly in the 
vicinity of Haywards, Alameda County; above medium size; almost round; dark 
purple; sweet and rich, with pleasant acid flavor; tree a vigorous grower, and 
an early, regular and profuse bearer." — John Rock. 

Coe's Golden Drop (English). — Very large, oval, suture distinct, one side 
more enlarged, necked ; light yellow, often dotted red to the sun ; stalk three- 
fourths inch, rather stiflF; flesh yellowish, firm, juicy, and rich, closely adhering 
to the pointed stone; shoots smooth, rather glossy. A standard late variety for 
canning. 

Silver Prune (Oregon). — Originated with W. H. Prettyman, who says: "It 
is a seedling from Coe's Golden Drop, which it much resembles, but it is much 
more productive." Profitable as a bleached prune, but defective in bearing in 
some California districts. A red variety by bud variation is reported by Mr. J. G. 
Grundel of Alma. 

Golden Prune. — Originated from the seed of Italian prune by Seth Lewelling, 
of Milwaukee, Oregon, and described by him as larger than Italian; light golden 
color; exquisite flavor; dries beautifully. Chiefly grown in Contra Costa county. 
Good for drying and canning. Requires short pruning. 

Santa Rosa. — By Luther Burbank, described by S. F. Leib as follows: "It is 
a fine grower, the wood is very tough and the limbs will not break. It is a sure, 
regular bearer and bears always most abundantly. It does not have any off 
years. The fruit runs remarkably fine, even in size, and astonishingly smooth 
and clear of any defects. It is beautiful, delicious, and a very fine carrier to 
Eastern markets. It will keep well in hot weather for a week after it is ripe, 
so there is no occasion to pick it half ripe in order to ship. T intend to plant it 
very largely myself, and to the exclusion of all other shipping plums." Intro- 
duced by George C. Roeding. Largely planted for shipping purposes. 

Formosa. — "Unusually large, thick, healthy, light green foliage ; strong, hard, 
wiry wood ; blooms with the Burbank and Abundance, and always escapes late 
spring frosts, and alwavs bears profusely even when continuous rainy weather 
prevents full pollination in most other plum.s. No disease has ever found lodg- 
ment with Formosa. The fruit is of uniform size, averaging about six inches 
in circumference one way by eight the other. Fruit yellow with a pale bloom until 
nearly ripe, turning to a clear rich red. Flesh pale yellow, unusually firm, sweet, 
rich, delicious, with a delightful apricot flavor, nearly freestone. Formosa has 
been very thoroughly tested for its keeping qualities, which are unequaled except 
by Santa Rosa, Wickson, Burbank. and a few others." — Luther Burbank. This 
variety is notably making good in the Placer County foothills as a shipping plum. 

Gaviota. — Burbank cross of Japanese and native American ; very large, deep 
red ; flesh vellow, firm and sweet ; pit small ; rather late bloomer. Favored in the 
Vacaville district for shipping. 

Bavay's Green Gage; syn. Reinc Claude de Bavay (French). — Large, round 
oval, greenish yellow, spotted with red, with small violet-colored longitudinal 
veins; flesh rather firm, juicy,- sugary, rich, of fine quality, adhering slightly to 
the stone; shoots smooth, leaves roundish, shining; a free grower and very pro- 
ductive. 

Ickxvorth Imperatriee (English). — Large to mediuin obovatc, purple, with 
irregular streaks of fawn color; stalk medium; flesh greenish yellow, sweet, 
juicy, rich, mostly adhering to the rather small stone; shoots smooth; very late, 
hangs long on the tree, and keeps well ; endures long shipment well. 

Fellcnberg, syns. Large German Prune, Stviss Prune, Italian Prune. — Medium 
size, oval, pointed and tapering at both ends; suture small, distinct; dark purple, 
with dark blue bloom; stalk one incli, scarcely sunk; flesh greenish yellow, juicy, 
sweet, delicious, parts from the stone; tree a free grower and very productive; 
late, excellent for drying. But little grown in California, but largely in Oregon. 

Coe's Late Red ; syn. Red St Martin. — Size medium, roundish, suture distinct 
on one side ; skin light purplish red, or dark red ; bloom thin, blue ; stalk three- 
fourths inch, scarcely sunk; flesh rather firm, crisp, rich, vinous; very late, 
shoots downy. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

THE QUINCE 

The quince enjoys California conditions to the utmost, and rewards 
the grower with large crops of very large and beautiful fruit. A quince 
weighing a pound is no curiosity, and it is unlikely that any city of the 
world can show such fine quinces at such low prices as San Francisco. 
The lesson from this fact is that the fineness of the fruit, and the evi- 
dent adaptation of the State to its growth, should not alone be con- 
sidered by the planter. The local consumption of quinces is naturally 
small, and it is chiefly for home preserving jelly making. The com- 
mercial jelly makers use apple juice as the basis of nearly all their 
jellies, only using a little quince for flavoring, and some housewives 
follow the same course. The hope for profitable sale of the fruit in 
large quantities must therefore rest on distant markets, and though 
those well acquainted with the growth and sale of the fruit in the cities 
of the Mississippi Valley, have predicted a great demand for the Cali- 
fornia quince in that territory, experiences of shippers thus far have 
been varied, and not such as to induce the extension of our quince pro- 
duction, at present at least. 

But though the quince in California has at present narrow commer- 
cial limitations, a few trees should find a place in every orchard, for 
family use or local sale. 



CULTURE OF THE QUINCE 

The quince is readily grown from cuttings. Take good-sized shoots 
of well-matured wood of the current year's growth, after the leaves 
drop in the fall, and set out at once in nursery row in moist alluvial 
soil, or in any loose soil which is well drained and can be kept moist 
enough by cultivation or irrigation. 

Quinces are planted at all distances apart, and are grown either as 
bushes or trees. Undoubtedly the best way is to plant about fourteen 
or sixteen feet apart, and prune into low standard tree form. This can 
be done much as already advised for other fruit trees. An annual 
cutting back of about half of the new growth, while forming the tree, 
will strengthen the trunk and limbs and prevent the running out of long 
leaders, which droop to the ground on all sides when laden with fruit, 
and are often broken by the weight and the wind. Owing to the dispo- 
sition of the quince to throw out several small shoots at a single point, 
it is advisable, when forming the tree, to remove all buds but one, just 
as the growth is starting. This will give one good, strong branch where 
it may be needed, instead of several weak ones. Pinching ofif shoots 
which start out too vigorously, or at undesirable points is, of course, 
advisable. 

282 



POPULAR VARIETIES OF THE QUINCE 283 

Soils for the Quince. — As the quince grows naturally in moist, 
though not wet lands, many persons think it always does best in 
springy ground or along the banks of rivulets ; but though moist soils 
are preferable to dry, such positions are not essential to obtaining large 
crops of fine fruit. In fact, the quince, like juost fruit trees, prefers a 
well-drained location, and does best on a soil which can be freely 
worked. It tlirives when fanned by the ocean breeze and does fairly 
vyell in the interior, providing it has moisture in the soil, and in some 
situations will doubtless require summer irrigation. 



VARIETIES OF THE QUINCE 

Though notably all varieties of the quince are introduced by our 
nurserymen and carried by them in small stock, most plantations are 
of the "apple" or "orange" variety. The following may be enumerated, 
however, as growing in this State : 

Apple or Orange. — Large; bright yellow; the best. August and September. 

Rea's Mammoth. — A very large and fine variety of the orange quince; a 
strong grower and very productive. 

Smyrna. — Introduced from Smyrna in 1897 by George C. Roeding of Fresno ; 
large, lemon yellow, handsome, tender and delicious after cooking; keeps well; 
tree a strong grower, with heavy foliage. 

Pineapple.— Originattd by Luther Burbank and distributed by him in 1899; 
the result of a long effort to secure a quince which would cook tender like an 
apple. The name comes from its flavor, which is suggestive of the pineapple. 
Resembles Orange quince, but is smoother and more globular. 

Portugal. — Very large, and fine flavor, turns a fine purple or deep crimson 
when cooked. 

The Chinese Quince. — A most extraordinary fruit, oblong, of immense size, 
often weighing from two to two and one-half pounds ; growth rapid and distinct. 

West's Mammoth. — Originated by W. B. West, of Stockton, from seed re- 
ceived from Boston in 1853 : of the Orange quince family ; round, clear yellow ; 
very large ; fine flavor and for the class a very good keeper. 

Champion. — Fruit very large, fair and handsome; tree very productive, sur- 
passing any other variety in this respect; bears abundantly when young; flesh 
cooks as tender as an apple, and without hard spots or cores; flavor delicate, 
imparting an exquisite quince taste and odor to any fruit with which it i$ 
cooked. 



PART FOUR: THE GRAPE 



CHAPTER XXV 

THE GRAPE INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA 

The grape grows in all parts of California, from near sea level on 
the coast to an elevation of 5000 feet or more on the mountains. It is 
contented, too, with nearly all fertile soils, from the deep valley loams, 
where the great fat, firm-fleshed grapes are grown for raisin and table 
grape shipments, to the shallow soils of the high foothills and mountain 
slopes, where the grapes are less in quantity, but of superior aromatic 
qualities. This wide adaptation gives an immense area suited for grape 
culture, but the chief reason for the achievement and the promise of the 
grape in California is in the fact that the European species, Vitis vini- 
fera, thrives, and thus the California grower has command of all that 
Europeans have accomplished in centuries by developing special varie- 
ties of the species for special purposes. The grapes of the States east 
of the Rocky Mountains are only grown in California in a small way 
because the European varieties are the only ones from which raisins 
can be made ; they also furnish the world's wine and brandy, and they 
give size, beauty, and shipping quality beyond all comparison with 
American varieties. Wherever wealthy Eastern connoisseurs choose 
grapes for their glass houses, they select European varieties ; the Cali- 
fornian grows his "hot house grapes" in the open air. He also grows 
most of them without the cost of trellising, because the European 
varieties generally will bear well in short-pruned, bush form. Cali- 
fornia has a large acreage of grape vines, and planting has been very 
active during the last few years, because good prices have prevailed, 
especially through the increased opportunity for fresh grape shipments. 
At the same time, new economic and commercial problems are continu- 
ally arising and the industry has to readjust itself to new conditions, 
discussion of such problems does not come within the scope of a cul- 
tural treatise like this. It is the duty of the grower to keep himself up 
to date on such subjects by faithful reading of California periodicals 
and by participation in public assemblies in the grape interest. Con- 
cerning cultural difficulties, the protection of vine from its enemies 
and problems in vinification, special researches are constantly pursued 
by the University Experiment Station at Berkeley and publications are 
furnished on application. 

The culture of the grape is one of the great branches of California 
horticulture. Its three chief divisions are : Grapes for the table, grapes 
for wine, and grapes for raisins. In all these branches the product has 
far exceeded local requirements and has become an important item in 
the export trade of the State. The attainments of the industry can be 
roughly measured by the statistics of the shipments of grapes, raisins, 

284 



VALUE OF CALIFORNIA GRAPE PRODUCTS 285 

wine and brandy, which are given at the close of Chapter VI. The 
California Board of Viticultural Commissioners reports the quantities 
and products of California grape products in 1913, as follows : 

Table grapes, 7,363 carloads at $950 per car $ 6,994,850 

Wine and brandy, 42,134,988 gallons, estimated selling for 15,000,000 

Raisins, 65,000 tons (below normal), estimated selling for 4,840,275 

Total $26,835,125 



THE GRAPE AREA OF CALIFORNIA 

The grape has a very wide range in CaHfornia. If the immediate 
seacoast and the higher altitudes on the mountains be excepted, the 
grape may be planted with a good chance of success anywhere if soil 
and local topography be suitable. As has been shown in Chapter I, 
the vine can approach quite close to the ocean if some shelter from 
prevailing cool winds be afforded, and quite high on the mountains if 
one keeps out of depressions where late frosts are frequent. In plant- 
ing the grape in doubtful situations much depends upon choice of 
proper varieties. For example, in the cool air of the coast region and 
the short summer of the higher altitudes, early maturing varieties must 
be the main reliance, for late sorts will not receive heat enough to bring 
them to full maturity. 

Away from immediate coast influences, and up to perhaps three 
thousand feet or more on the sides of the Sierra, the grape is success- 
fully grown both upon the floors of the valleys and upon the hillsides. 
But there is still need of choice both of special locations and of varieties 
according to the purposes which the grower has in view. The coast 
valleys of the upper part of the State produce good table grapes, but 
they are unfavorable for the raisin industry because of the deficient sun- 
shine and excessive atmospheric humidity of the autumn months. The 
best raisins are made in the dry, heated valleys of the interior, and the 
conditions which there develop the fullest quality of the raisin grape 
also develop the sugar in some kinds of wine grapes beyond a desir- 
able percentage. Here again the choice of suitable varieties intrudes 
itself, for the varieties which yield light table wines in the coast valleys 
may yield heavy "heady" wines in the interior. Valleys, too, as a rule, 
although they yield larger crops of grapes and greater measure of 
wine than similar area on the hillsides, must yield the palm for quality 
to the warm soils of the slopes. And here enters the business proposi- 
tion whether large amount and less quality is better than less amount 
and higher quality. To this there can be no general answer. It de- 
pends upon the disposition which is to be made of the crop, and the de- 
mand for it. 

The coloring of certain varieties is a matter underlying their profit- 
able production for fresh shipments and this is determined by local 
conditions concerning which the best information is actual observation 
of their effects. These few facts out of many which could be stated 
will serve to enforce the fact that wide as is the range of the grape, both 
localities and varieties for certain purposes must be intelligently chosen. 



286 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

Much has been learned during the last few years, but it will require the 
experience of another generation, perhaps, to make the matter clear. 

Soils for the Grape. — The grape will thrive on a great variety 
of soils, in fact, on any of those enumerated as fruit soils in Chapter 
III. There are thrifty vineyards on the light, deep valley loams, on the 
heavy clayey loams, on adobe, and on the red soils of the foothills. 
Even on shallow soils the grape will do well if given sufficient moisture, 
and on rocky subsoils it thrives if there be crevices for the roots to 
penetrate, or if the rock be shattered to admit the roots to permeable 
substrata. Standing water during the active period of the vine is, how- 
ever, unfavorable to growth, and alkali is adverse to satisfactory results 
in wine making. Almost any soil which does not hold excess of water 
or is not tainted with alkali will do for the vine, although the plant 
appreciates good, deep soil, and will grow and bear fruit in proportion 
to its supply of it. Of course the economic question of ease of culti- 
vation enters into the choice of soil for the grape, as for other fruits, but 
its claims are obvious and need not be enlarged upon. 

Length of Grape Season. — By choice of early and late varie- 
ties the grape season extends over half a year in California, without 
recourse to artificial means of preservation. Where the fall rains are 
not very protracted, the late varieties sometimes remain in good con- 
dition on the vines until the winter pruning. Good grapes have been 
picked from the vines as late as the middle of January. In the Lodi 
district of the San Joaquin Valley, a great center of the grape shipping 
industry, overland shipping begins about August 10, with Black Prince. 
Tokays from light soil soon follow, then from the heavy soil, and in 
about two weeks everything is going at full blast, keeping up strongly 
for nearly two months. Then it decreases greatly and continues into 
November with the later varieties, like Cornichon, Emperor and Fer- 
rara. There are also a number of other shipping varieties grown than 
those named, but Tokays far outnumber all the rest put together. 
There is much latitude in grape gathering, for grapes can stay on the 
vine for some time without deterioration ; besides there is the "second 
crop" from later blooming which is of advantage in shipping, but ob- 
jectionable in handling for raisins, brings less price for wine making. 
Tokays may be picked during a period of two months in the same 
vicinity because of the "second crop" and because the ripening comes 
earlier or later according to soil, as noted above. Even the intrusion 
of a light fall rain, such as they have in the interior, may help size and 
color, but a heavy rain is destructive and constitutes a constant menace 
in the late ripening districts near the coast, while occasionally injurious 
to the interior also. 

Shipping Grapes in Sawdust. — The table grape industry of Cal- 
ifornia seems to be entering upon a notable extension of its marketing 
season and area through the demonstration by the United States Bureau 
of Plant Industry, that California grapes can be profitably packed in 
drums, holding about 35 lbs. of grapes, packed in redwood sawdust, 
properly prepared and held safely in cold storage for winter sale in the 
East — as Spanish grapes in cork dust are handled. Better results are 



SHIPPING GRAPES FOR LONG KEEPING 287 

attained with sawdust than with cork dust. Full details are given in 
Bulletin 35, U. S. Dept. Agr., December 31, 1913, which the interested 
reader should secure. The shipments of 1912, about thirty carloads, or 
8,596 drums, sold in New York at an average of $2.90 per drum, which, 
after deducting all costs of packing, transportation, storage and com- 
mission, would net the grower about $60 per ton for the grapes. The 
grapes thus handled were Emperors. Thus far it seems to be dem- 
onstrated that Muscats can be sold this way until November 15th, 
Malagas until December 15th, Emperors until about January. It is 
expected that if California can commercially grow the Almeria, the 
grape used in Spanish shipping, it can be safely held in storage until 
April 1. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

PROPAGATING AND PLANTING VINES 

The grape is propagated from seed or by layers, or by cuttings of 
various lengths. Growing from seed was somewhat resorted to in 
California to get stocks for resisting the phylloxera, but such wide 
variation in resistance occurred in seedlings that propagation by cut- 
tings, of varieties demonstrated to be best in this regard, has become 
universal. There is at present little disposition to grow grape seedlings 
in the hope of securing better and hardier varieties, as is so largely done 
in other parts of the country. The vast numbers of varieties of the 
European species, vinifera, which we have to draw from, makes the 
effort for new seedlings of little object. 

Growing Vines from Seed. — Seed is easily removed from the 
grapes by crushing the berries and stirring the pulp rapidly in water. 
From one pound of good, fresh seed one might get from two to three 
thousand seedlings. Some advocate sowing grape seed in the fall, just 
as it is taken from the fruit, but best results are usually obtained by 
spring sowing, after danger from frost is over. It is advisable to keep 
grape seed moist for some time before sowing. Seed soaked one week 
in water, and afterward allowed to lie in a heap for three weeks ger- 
minates quickly, starting in ten days or two weeks after being put in 
the ground. Professor Husmann advised pouring hot water on the 
seed and allowing it to cool, the seed remaining in the water for twelve 
hours, and after that it is kept for a week in a sack, exposed to the sun, 
and covered at night, the sack being moistened from time to time. 

The seed should be sown in the open ground, the soil having been 
worked deeply and finely, as for a garden. Sow the seed about an inch 
apart, in drills far enough from each other to admit the use of the culti- 
vator in the summer ; cover not to exceed an inch in depth, and after 
moderate pressing of the ground, cover the whole bed with rotten straw, 
which should be gradually removed as the sprouts appear above the 
ground. This mulch will not only retain moisture, but will prevent the 
surface from being crusted by heavy showers. Summer cultivation 
with cultivator and hoe should be given. 

Growing Vines by Layering. — This is another method of mul- 
tiplying vines which is but little employed in California, because it is 
so much easier to secure plants by cuttings, as the vinifera species roots 
so readily. Layering consists in bending down and burying one of the 
lower canes so as to facilitate top and root growth from each of the 
buds. To hold the cane in place, stakes are used, the trench being left 
open until the shoots grow out and then, by covering the roots are de- 
veloped. The cane must rest in moist earth, and usually has to be 
watered artificially, as well as treated to prevent evaporation. The fol- 
lowing winter the cane is raised and a plant made at each node. 

288 






JO 




•^ ^o 



c}i 



IS 



X 



u< 



GROWIXG GRAPES FROM CUTTINGS 289 

Another use for layering is to fill a vacancy in the row, a cane being 
taken from the nearest living vine. In this case tiie layer nnist be set 
in a deep trench so as not to be torn out by the plow, and the layered 
cane is at once covered in with earth, all but one or two burls at the 
extremity, where the new vine is desired. Such a layer usually bears 
the second year and is then detached from the parent vine. 

Both the layers described are laid down early in the spring, before 
growth starts in the vine. Summer layers of the current season's 
growth arc sometimes made, but are not usually satisfactory. 

Growing Vines from Cuttings. — This is the prevailing method 
in this State both to secure grafting stocks and to grow vines on their 
own roots. In growing from cuttings, different policies are adopted, 
/. c, placing the cuttings in permanent place in the vineyard, or root- 
ing them in nursery to be afterward transferred to the vineyard as 
"rooted vines." First, the various kinds of cuttings will be considered, 
and their placing mentioned later. 

Growth from Single Eyes. — The use of single eyes or single 
buds, tiic shortest possible form of cutting, is not large in California, 
but some growers have reported good results. The method is to pre- 
pare the cuttings with a half-inch or so of the cane on each side of the 
bud and plant them carefully, with the bud upwards, in well-prepared 
soil, covering the cutting completely, but very little under the surface. 
Success depends upon retention of moisture in the surface soil to in- 
duce rooting, and mulching is advisable. The method of propagation, 
too, seems best adapted to the moister parts of the State, whence, in 
fact, most success with it has been reported. Besides economy of 
wood in getting a plant from each bud of the cane, which is some- 
times an object, growing from single eyes is advocated because of the 
satisfactory root system secured, which much resembles that of a seed- 
ling. The use of single eyes is obviously better adapted to nursery 
than to field growth. 

The Use of Longer Cuttings.* — It was formerly considered good 
practice to leave a piece of old wood attached to the base of the cutting, 
on the ground that such cuttings always grew. This practice is now 
very generally abandoned, as it often gives rise to weak and diseased 
vines. The piece of old wood always decays finally, and the decay may 
spread into the trunk and roots of the vine. A good cutting should 
consist exclusively of one-year-old wood ; that is, the wood which has 
grown during the previous season. 

The form and length of the cuttings will depend on the use that is 
to be made of them. If they are to be used as scions for grafting they 
may be cut up in any way and of any length that is found convenient 
for handling and keeping them in good condition. If they are to be 
used for rooting either in the nursery or the vineyard it is most con- 
venient to cut them up into the exact lengths which are to be planted. 

'Much of the following description of handling cuttings is taken bodily from the excellent 
University publications by Mr. F. T. Bioletti, viz.: Circular 26, "Selection and preparation of 
Vine Cuttings." Bulletin 180, "Resistant Vineyards — grafting, planting, cultivation." Bulle- 
tin 193, "The Best Wine Grapes for California," etc. All these contain discussions of propa- 
gation methods. 



290 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



The length will depend altogether on the soil and climate where 
they are to be planted. They should be of such a length that when 
planted the base of the cutting will be at the level where the conditions 
are most favorable to root formation. If the base is too deep, it will 
be too wet and too cold to develop roots. Roots will start higher up 




Properly made cuttings. 



and the bottom part will be wasted, or worse still, may decay and injure 
the vine. If the base is too near the surface the whole cutting may dry 
out and die before its roots have developed sufficiently to supply it with 
water. 

In the moister soils of the cooler districts a cutting 10 inches long 
is sufficient for direct planting in the vineyard. In the drier and warmer 



TREATMENT OF GRAPE CUTTINGS 291 

interior a 14-inch to 16-inch cutting is better, while in the driest soils 
of the warmest districts it is often necessary to have a cutting 18 to 20 
inches long. For planting in the nursery a 12 or 14-inch cutting is 
about the most convenient. If the soil of the nursery is wet and cold 
more of the cutting should be left above ground ; if, on the contrary. 
the soil tends to be hot and dry the cutting must be planted deeper and 
even covered up completely. 

It is not necessary, or possible, to make every cutting of exactly 
the same length, because they should all terminate at each end at a 
node. A vine cane consists of nodes where the buds are and internodes 
between them. The pith is interrupted at each node by a woody parti- 
tion (called tlie "diaphragm") which extends through the cane at each 
bud. In making a cutting, therefore, we should cut exactly through 
a bud both at the top and at the bottom. This will leave the woody 
partitions, which will prevent decay at the bottom and drying out at 
the top. If removed, the pits in the upper internode will be exposed 
to alternate wetting and drying, and may decay, thus weakening or 
killing the bud below. 

In planting, the cutting should be placed with just one bud above 
the surface of the ground, as indicated by the dotted line in the accom- 
panying engraving. It is a great mistake to leave more than one bud 
out of the ground, as this increases the danger of drying out. 

Making and Caring for Cuttings. — Cuttings can be taken from 
the vines at any time after the fall of the leaf and before the spring 
flow of sap begins. The earlier cuttings — those taken before January 
— are more likely to make a successful start and after-growth than 
those cut later in the season. 

It is common, however, to defer preparation of cuttings till the 
pruning is done, be it early or late, and this will generally answer the 
purpose, if care be taken to secure the cuttings immediately at the 
pruning; but if the branches be allowed to lie upon the ground for 
days, exposed to sun, wind, or frost, before the cuttings are secured. 
their chances of growth are seriously lessened, and a good part of the 
failures in planting are due to such cuttings. 

Cuttings should be taken from the short-jointed, well-ripened wood 
of the previous year's growth, cut squarely and smoothly as already 
described. Cuttings from the outer ends of long canes are not so likely 
to root, nor to grow so vigorously, as those from stronger wood, irom 
three-eighths to five-eighths of an inch in diameter generally. 

Keep them dormant until the time comes to set them in the vine- 
yard, else the tender shoots may get broken. To keep them back, place 
them, at the pruning in trenches, about as deep as the length of the 
cuttings, on the north side of a close board fence or a building, cover 
with loose earth, and over that throw some straw and boards. Take 
care that the trenches are in moist but not wet ground as too much 
moisture rots the cuttings. If the ground has not been moist enough, 
and the cuttings seem dry or withered, plunge them in water to within 
three or four inches of their top, for a few days before setting, and 
do not let them dry again before planting. 



292 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

Rooting Cuttings in Nursery. — What has been written is in 
reference to cuttings designed for placing in permanent position in the 
vineyards, but, for the most part, appHes as well to the preparation of 
cuttings for the nursery. For nursery treatment, however, shorter 
cuttings can be used than for field planting, because of the better cul- 
tivation and more generous moisture conditions which are usually 
provided. 

In preparation of ground for the rooting of vines and the planting 
of cuttings therein, the suggestions in Chapter VIII are directly appli- 
cable, as, to secure rooting of the cuttings, there is just as great need for 
deep and fine working of the soil, pressing of it around the cutting, 
and for careful culture during the growing season, as there is for such 
treatment of fruit-tree seedling or root graft. It is just as necessary, 
too, that the rooted cuttings should be carefully lifted and guarded 
from drying out while on the way from the nursery to permanent 
place. The reader is, therefore, referred to Chapter VIII for sugges- 
tions on preparation, laying out, and care of nursery ground intended 
for the rooting of grape cuttings. 

To secure vines upon resistant roots recourse has recently been 
made by some growers to the cutting-graft which will be mentioned 
presently. 

There is a growing tendency to use rooted vines instead of cutting 
in planting out vineyards, for, although the former costs several 
times as much as the latter, either in the time of the grower or in cash 
outlay, the balance is believed to be usually on the other side, when the 
uniform stand and more satisfactory growth secured by rooted vines 
are considered. 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING THE GRAPE VINE 

Working over the grape vine is largely practised in this State and 
is easily accomplished. The occasion is twofold ; Replacing undesir- 
able varieties with those of better quality, or in better market demand, 
and in bringing the vinifcra varieties upon roots which resist the attacks 
of the phylloxera. The employment of resistant stocks has proved 
eminently satisfactory in this State, the resistant stock having been 
successfully installed even in the hole from which the dead vinifera 
root had been taken. For this reason resistant roots are largely relied 
upon in the planting of new vineyards in infested districts, and also 
used to some extent in regions where the insect is not now found, 
by those who fear and desire to provide against its coming. And yet 
in the large planting of vineyard in the interior valley which has 
recently been undertaken very little attention has been paid to resistant 
roots. It is so cheap to proceed with simple cuttings of the variety 
desired, and the vine comes into bearing so soon, that most planters are 
willing to take the risk of infection with phylloxera for it may be long 
delayed and several profitable crops may be realized before its arrival. 
This is a question which each planter must answer for himself. 

Budding the Grape. — Buds can be readily made to grow in 
grape canes, though budding is not largely used. Success can be had 



BUDDING THE GRAPE VINE 



293 



with the same method of budding' that is common with fruit trees as 
described in Chapter IX. Insert the bud (which is taken from a cane 
of the previous season's growth ) in the spring as soon as the bark will 
slip well on the stock, and before the run of the sap is too strong. 
Keep the cuttings in a cool place so their growth will be retarded, and 
then seize upon just the right condition of the stock, insert the bud 
under the bark of a cane of the previous season's growth, tie it around 
with a string, and the bud starts readily without further treatment, 
when its growth shows its ability to take the sap, the top of the stock 
is removed. 

Herbaceous budding is also practicable. It consists of taking buds 
from the current season's growth and working them upon canes also 
of current growth by the usual shield budding process. Mr. Thomas 





Budding from previous season's growth. 



Casalegna of San Martin succeeds well with this under these condi- 
tions : All buds put in from July 15 to August 15 start the same year, 
but may be injured by fall frosts. Those put in from August 15 to 
September 15 remain dormant until the following year, unless the 
stock is exceptionally vigorous. Budding is most successful in the 
month of August. The buds should be taken from canes which have 
reached the stage of maturity indicated by the pith turning white and 
just before the bark turns yellow. 

Grafting the Vine. — Grafting in old vine roots is a simple opera- 
tion, and is performed in various ways. The princijiles involved in 
vine grafting are similar to those affecting tree grafting, as described 
in Chapter IX. The processes employed are also similar, but the graft 
re(]uires less binding and waxing is dispensed with, because the graft 
is made beneath the surface of the ground, and is, therefore, less subject 
to accident, exposure, and drying out. 



294 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

Grafting in the Old Stump. — This is resorted to when the char- 
acter of the vineyard is to be changed. Out of the many ways for 
working into old stumps, one introduces the scion by a side cut into 
the stock without sphtting across as shown at C C in the adjacent 
engraving. The earth is removed from the old vine down to its first 
lateral roots, and the top is sawed off cleanly a few inches above the 
first laterals. A cut is then made into the side of the stump with a 
knife and mallet, as shown in the figure. The scion is then cut long 
enough so that one bud will remain above ground when the surface is 
leveled again, the bottom of the scion being given an oblique wedge- 
shape, so as to fit the crevice in the stock. Some care is needed in 
shaping the wedge of the scion, so that the surfaces are in contact will 
give good results. If the stock is well made and the end of the scion 
so adjusted that the stock will pinch it when it is pushed into place, 
nothing more will be needed except to smear over the cut surface of 
the stump and the joint of the scion and stock with clay or with a 
mixture of two parts clay and one part fresh cow manure. If the scion 
is held firmly and sealed in with this mixture, it usually needs no tying, 
and the hole can be carefully filled with loose earth, with a strong stake 
to mark the place of the graft, and to which the new growth can be 
securely tied afterwards. 

Another common method of grafting beneath the ground is to 
split the stump across its center, as is done in top-grafting fruit trees 
as shown in Chapter IX, and one or two scions inserted. If two are 
used and both grow, the weaker one is afterward suppressed. In this 
cross cleft graft some grafters rely upon the stock to hold the scion 
without tying, and daub it over with the clay mixture, care being taken 
to fill and cover the split in the stock to exclude water. Others put a 
ligature around the split stump. Strips of cotton cloth answer well 
for this purpose. Tying offers better security from knocking out the 
graft with the cultivator. 

In grafting into very tough old stumps, some growers leave a slim 
wedge of wood in the cleft with the scion to prevent the stock from 
closing too forcibly upon the scion. 

Side Grafting. — Side grafting the vine is commended by some 
growers. It consists in inserting a graft by a cut into the side of the 
stock, the method being essentially the same as that employed with 
fruit trees, as described in Chapter IX, excepting that in side grafting 
the vine the top is not amputated, but is allowed to bear its crop and is 
then removed the following winter. The next summer the scion will 
bear a crop, and the vine is worked over without cessation in its 
bearing. 

Herbaceous Grafting. — This term is applied to a graft in which 
the scion of the current season's growth is set by a cleft graft into 
canes also of the current season's growth, while both scion and cane are 
elastic, but not too soft. The method has not been usually successful in 
this State, apparently because of the dryness of the summer air. Still 
some satisfactory results are reported. Mr. Casalegna of Santa Clara 
county whose success with herbaceous buds has been noted, does 
well also with soft-wood grafting by the whip-graft method. He says 



METHODS OF GR.\FTIXG GRAPE VINES 



295 



it is most successful in June, provided the scions are hard enough. 
The pith must be white. In a strong-growing vineyard grafting may 
be done in July. The leaves are taken off the scions when they are cut. 
If they are to be used immediately they are placed in water; if to be 
carried some distance they are placed in a wet sack. Tie the grafts 




A. 

B. BB. 

C. CC. 
stumps. 



Methods of field grafting grape vines. 

Wliip graft for stocks 1-2 to 2-3 of an inch in diameter. 
Whip graft for stocks 2-3 to 3-4 of an inch in diameter. 
Cleft graft for stocks 3-4 of a ninch in diameter and for old 



296 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

with German knitting yarn, not with raffia. The season for herbace- 
ous grafting will, of course, vary according to the locality. Hot 
weather immediately following the work is fatal to most of the grafts 
If two or three cool days follows the insertion of the scions he obtains 
an almost perfect stand. 

Care of Scions. — Scions should be kept cool and moist enough 
to prevent drying but not wet enough to cause decay, as has already 
been described in the keeping of cuttings. 

Time of Grafting. — Grafting into old vine stumps is done in 
February, March and April in different parts of the State, March being 
the month usually chosen for the work. If a spring graft fails, the 
stump may be regrafted in August or in the following spring. In 
regrafting, the stump is cut off again below the previous cleft. The 
time for the work is when the sap has ceased flowing, usually from the 
first to the tenth of August. 

Resistance to Phylloxera. — The recourse to resistant roots to 
escape the phylloxera has been attended with some disappointment 
because the wild roots at first widely used proved only partially resist- 
ant. Recently, in the main through employment of French selected 
varieties of the American wild species, stocks with satisfactory resist- 
ance, larger growth and vigor and adaptation to different California 
soils have been secured. Notable success has been attained in the 
habilitation of vineyards on the basis of resistant roots. As this under- 
taking involves considerable outlay and as success depends taking 
advantage of the latest demonstrations of the affinities of varieties, the 
adaptations of roots to soils and the suitability of varieties for special 
purposes, the latest information should be had from the University 
Experiment Station at Berkeley, before making investments. 

The Cutting Graft. — Grafting the desired variety upon a resist- 
ant cutting, putting these cutting-grafts through a callusing bed and 
then planting the grafted cutting in nursery for rooting is an accepted 
French method which is being successfully employed in California. 
This has advantage in time gained and in securing a full stand of vines 
as compared with grafting upon cuttings already rooted in place in the 
vineyard though the latter has been successfully practiced. 

If cutting-grafts are placed directly in the nursery many will fail. 
For this reason it is always best, except at the extreme end of the 
grafting season, to "stratify" the grafts in a "callusing" bed, where 
conditions of moisture, temperature, and aeration can be controlled. 
This callusing bed is usually a pile of clean sand placed in the south 
end of wall or building surrounded by a board partition where there is 
no possibility of its becoming too wet by the flow of water from a 
higher level or from an over-hanging roof. It should be protected, if 
necessary, by a surrounding ditch. It should be furnished with a 
removable cover of canvas or boards to protect it from rain and to 
enable the temperature to be controlled by admission or exclusion of 
the sun's rays. A waterproof wagon-cover, black on one side and white 
on the other, is excellent for this purpose. 



LAYING OUT THE VIXEYARD 297 

The bottom of the callusing bed is first covered with 2 or 3 inches 
of sand. The hutidlcs of p^rafts are then placed in a row alonj^ one end 
of the bed. and sand well filled in around them. The bundles should be 
placed in a slightly inclined position with the scions uppermost, and 
the sand should l)e dry enough so that it sifts in between the grafts in 
the bundle. The bundles of grafts are then covered up completely with 
sand, leaving it at least 2 inches deep above the top of the scion. There 
should be but little more moisture present for callusing than in the sand 
used for keeping the cuttings over winter. Too much moisture will 
stimulate the emission of roots and starting of buds without aiding 
the callus formation, which is a perfectly distinct process from the 
formation of roots. 

Grafting of Resistant Stocks after Rooting. — Grafting on resist- 
ant roots differs from working in old stumps in the size of the wood to 
be operated on, and in the fact that the graft must be set higher up 
because it is not desirable to have the scion strike roots of its own. for 
the obvious reason that depending on such roots would make the vine 
no longer resistant. The advantage of covering the graft with earth 
is, however, still to be enjoyed, for the earth can be raised in a little 
mound around the graft, to be removed when the graft has taken well. 
For this reason grafting on resistant roots is usually done at or near 
the surface of the ground. 

The common cleft graft is used when the stock is large enough to 
give a split strong enough to hold in the scion. In grafting smaller 
stocks the whip graft is used both in making cutting-grafts and in 
grafting cuttings already rooted. This graft is variously treated. It 
is covered with clay by some, by others with grafting wax ; but the 
common experience is that grafting wax makes too tight a joint, and 
holds in surplus sap. which begets disease. The use of a wax band 
specially adapted to ruling conditions has proved very successful, but 
the easiest and usually most satisfactory way is to wind with soft twine 
or raffia which will decay and loosen as the graft enlarges, but care 
must be taken to cut the band if it has not decayed at the time of 
transplanting. 

LAYING OUT THE VINEYARD 

Vines are planted in rectangles, generally in squares, but some- 
times at a less distance in the rows than the rows are from each other. 
The stakes which are to represent the future vines are in either case 
placed by the same methods of measupring or marking off. All the 
methods described for clearing and preparing lands, in Chapter VII, 
and for laying off ground in squares, described in Chapter X, are 
applicable to vineyard ground. The measuring wire therein described 
is the means usually employed for laying off. A special contrivance 
which has been used to some extent on level ground is thus described : 

The marker most in use is made in the form of a sled, sixteen, fourteen, or 
twelve feet long, with three runners so placed as to mark rows eight, seven, or 
six feet wide. These runners should be made about three feet long, of some 
h.-ird wood (Oregon pine will do), two inches thick and firmly nailed to two 
pl.Tuks placed upon them of the lengths first above named. Upon these should 



298 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

be bolted two strong pieces of joist in the form of wagon hounds projecting in 
front far enough to receive a stout pole like a wagon tongue, well braced and 
fastened with an iron rod. Care must be taken that the motion of the machine 
is steady and true in all its parts. With a well-made marker, a gentle team, and 
a careful driver, excellent work may be done. 

Distance of Planting. — There is as much difference of opinion 
and practice in fixing the distance between vines as between orchard 
trees, but usually more room is given than formerly. Planted in 
squares, the distance varies from seven to ten feet, with eight feet as 
most prevalent, taking the State as a whole. Planting in rows is also 
adopted to some extent. Such plantations are made with the vines 
seven by ten or eight by ten feet, four and one-half by eleven feet, 
etc. There is a great variation in the distances. Some advantages of 
the row system are as follows : Greater space to spread trays for 
raisin curing; plowing can be done with double team and larger plows; 
the brush can be gathered and burned between the rows instead of 
carrying it to the avenues ; sulphur and materials for spraying can be 
brought in by team to any part of the vineyard ; empty boxes can be 
distributed and filled ones gathered up without carrying, etc. Planting 
in rows recommends itself not only for planting new vineyards, but 
also for changing old vineyards from seven by seven feet to three and 
one-half by fourteen feet, or from eight by eight feet to four by sixteen 
feet, giving opportunity to change from a vinifera-root vineyard to 
a resistant-root vineyard. This can be accomplished by planting resist- 
ant roots in the alternate rows to be preserved, right between the two 
old vines. 

Number of Vines to the Acre. — However the vines be set, it 
is very easy to calculate the number of vines which an acre will accom- 
modate. Multiply the distance in feet between the rows by the distance 
the plants are apart in the rows, and the product will be the number of 
square feet for each plant, which, divided into the number of feet in an 
acre (forty-tree thousand five hundred and sixty), will give the num- 
ber of plants to the acre. 

Avenues in the Vineyard. — For convenience of access with team 
and wagon there should always be avenues through the vineyard. They 
are usually arranged so as to cut up the vineyard into blocks about 
twice as long as broad, if the vineyard be on the level land. Of course, 
on hilly lands the avenues should be located for ease of hauling. 
The avenue is made by leaving out a row of vines, and, therefore, the 
exact size of the block will depend upon the distance between the rows. 
Some advise having not more than forty vines between the avenues. 
Planting in rows, with wide spaces between the rows, renders few 
avenues necessary. 

PLANTING CUTTINGS AND ROOTED VINES 

Various means are used for planting cuttings. An essential condi- 
tion to successful growth is to have the lower part of the cutting well 
embedded in the soil, as it will not root unless in close contact with the 
earth. To lack of care in this regard most failures are due, and for 
lack of surety that such contact is made the various contrivances for 



PLANTING GRAPE VINES 



299 



speedy plantin":. such as the planting bar, are widely condemned • an 
excavation of the hole and refilling with fine surface earth, just as 
advised in Chapter XI, for planting orchard trees, is commended as the 
safest practice. Much, however, depends upon the soil. In loose free 
soil such a use of a bar or "sheep's-foot" as will be presently described 
may be satisfactory, while it would be impracticable on firmer soils 
both because of the difficulty of insertion and because the packed condi- 



\J 



i ^— r^ 



a 



k^ 



Dibbles for planting vine cuttings. 

tion caused by the forcing in would not favor root extension, and 
not desirable on shallow soils because the contact of the better surface 
soil with the bottom of the cutting will stimulate the growth of the 
cutting, and is, therefore, very desirable. 

The post-hole auger and a device for taking out soil as a "trier" 
takes out a sample of cheese or butter, have also been used to some 
extent, but not widely, in making holes for cuttings 



300 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

Other forms of dibbles for planting vine cuttings relate particularly 
to the setting of cutting-grafts in a light deeply-worked nursery soil, 
but may be also used to advantage in placing cuttings in the vineyard 
if the soil favors such a method. They are described by Mr. Bioletti 
as follows : 

Two of the best forms of nursery dibbles are shown in the engrav- 
ing. The first, "a" consists of a piece of round one-half-inch 
iron, 18 inches long, furnished with a wooden handle at one end and 
a curved double point with a V-shaped cleft in the other. The bottom 
node of the stock is caught in the cleft and the graft forced down to 
the desired depth. Unless the ground is very light the other dibble, "b," 
is preferable. It consists of a sword-shaped piece of iron 18 to 20 
inches long and 2 inches wide, furnished also with a handle. The usual 
way of using it is to press it into the ground to the desired depth, open 
the hole a little with a lateral thrust, withdraw it and insert the graft. 
The dibble is then pushed into the ground again at about an inch to one 
side of the graft and by another lateral thrust the earth is pressed 
tightly around the graft. This takes more time than is necessary with 
the other form of dibble, and usually done carefully there is danger of 
failing to make the soil close around the base of the stock, which is thus 
left surrounded by an air space. Grafts left in this way are apt to 
become moldy and fail to make good roots. The figure "c" is a planting 
dibble to be used with hand and foot like a spade. All such contriv- 
ances are only suited to light soils which crumble and settle easily. On 
heavier soils, digging holes and placing the soil around the roots or the 
base of the cutting by hand is indispensable. 

Planting Bar and Sheep's-foot. — The following methods, de- 
scribed by Dr. Gustav Eisen as prevailing in the raisin districts of the 
San Joaquin Valley, on sandy, loamy soils, will well illustrate similar 
methods wherever followed : 

The planting bar consists of a bar of hard iron, sharpened at the lower end 
and furnished with a cross handle at the other. The length of the bar is about 
three and a half feet, width about two and a half inches, and thickness a third to 
half an inch. If less than this tlie bar will bend. The planting is done by push- 
ing the bar perpendicularly in the ground. After withdrawing it, insert the cut- 
ting and push it down to the bottom.- Fill up the hole by again inserting the bar 
in the ground close by and pressing the flat side against the hole. 

The sheep's-foot consists of a round rod with cross-handle at the upper end. 
The lower end of the rod is sHghtly flattened, bent and forked. The planting 
is done by fitting the forked end over the butt-end of the cutting, and immedi- 
ately pushing cutting and rod together to the desired depth in the soil. A slight 
twist is now given to the sheep's-foot. This loosens it from the cutting and 
allows it to be withdrawn. A tamp with the foot fills the hole. Great care must 
be taken in withdrawing the sheep's-foot, lest in doing so the cutting should be 
lifted also, and this will leave a fatal air chamber at the lower end. The slight 
twist given the rod before withdrawing loosens it and leaves the cutting 
undisturbed. 

For planting in dry situations some careful planters run water 
and fine earth into the hole made by the bar after inserting the cutting ; 
others run in fine sand dry and then pour on water. In using water 
in this way one must take care that he uses sand or sandy earth, and 
not clay, for a succeeding dry spell may bake it, and the cutting will be 
worse off than if not puddled. 



PLANTING GRAPE VINES 301 

Planting Rooted Vines. — Planting rooted vines is governed by 
the same rules conimonded for planting trees in Chapter XI, so far as 
preparation of holes, care in placing and firming the soil around the 
roots, etc., is concerned. In handling rooted vines there must be 
greater care in packing and transportation to prevent the roots from 
drying, and in carrying to the field it is generally advised that the 
plants be kept in a pail or other receptacle with water. The vine roots 
are very small and tender, and success will largely depend upon good 
care of them. At planting all dead or injured roots should be trimmed 
away, healthy roots shortened so that they can be placed well in the 
hole, and the top reduced to a single cane cut back to two eyes. 

When to Plant. — The exact time to plant can not be stated, for 
the condition of the soil and the local season-points are the best guides. 
Planting can be done much later as a rule in the coast regions than in 
the interior, Ijecause the soil is usually later in getting into good condi- 
tion of mellowness and warmth, and the late rains are usually heavier. 
It is certainly not advisable to place cuttings in cold, wet soil, and 
dry soil will quickly destroy their vitality. The suggestions given in 
Chapter XI should be carefully considered. The planter must use 
good judgment in choosing his time for planting, aided in forming it 
by the best local experience he can get. 

Cultivation of Vineyard. — General suggestions concerning the 
cultivation of the vineyard have already been given in Chapter XIII. 
in which methods employed in California, and which are practically 
the same for all fruits, are described. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

PRUNING AND CARE OF THE VINE* 

Most of the varieties of vinifera grown in California at present 
thrive under the short pruning system. There are exceptions, however, 
which will be noted later. The prevalence of the short pruning 
system frees our growers from the expense and inconvenience of 
trellises. Though in the early years of the vine stakes are used, our 
older vines stand by themselves and are as independent of support as 
our fruit trees. The vines are, in fact, shaped upon something the 
same model as our fruit trees, the so-called "goblet form" of the French 
being our prototype. 

THE FIRST YEAR 

During the summer of the year the vines are planted, no pruning 
or training of any kind is needed in most cases. For this reason it is 
nearly always unnecessary to stake the vines when they are planted. 
The only exception to this is when strong-rooted vines are planted in 
a rich, moist soil in which they will make a very large growth the first 
year. In this case it is desirable, though not quite necessary, to 
stake the vines immediately after planting to adopt the method of 
summer treatment described below for the second year. 

In most cases it is best to allow all shoots to remain to feed the 
vine and to insure a good root growth the first year. 

Staking. — In the autumn or winter following planting, the vines 
should be staked, either before or after pruning, but in any case some 
time before the buds start in the spring. 

The kind of stake used will depend on the variety of vine and on 
the method of pruning to be ultimately adopted. For ordinary short- 
pruning, the stake should be of such length that, after being driven 
into the ground, sufficient will be below the surface to keep it firm 
and prevent its being loosened by the force of the wind acting on the 
vine which is tied to it, and sufficient above the surface to extend one 
or two inches above the height at which it is intended to head the vines. 
It should be from one and one-quarter to one and one-half inches 
square, according to the length. 

In firm ground, for small-growing vines such as Zinfandel, a 
stake 1^ by 1^ inches and 27 inches long will be sufficient. This 
will allow 15 inches to be driven into the ground and leave 12 inches 
above, which is enough for vines to be headed at 10 inches. If the 
ground is loose or sandy a 30-inch stake driven 18 inches into the 
ground will be needed. For strong-growing varieties, such as 
Carignane or Tokay, especially when planted in rich soil, a stake 
1^ by 1^ inches and 36 inches long will be necessary, and 15 or 

*The detailed instructions and accompanying illustrations in this chapter are taken from 
the excellent writings of Mr. F. T. Bioletti for the California Experiment Station, and 
embody the teachings of long experience and wide observation. 

302 



PRUNING THE GRAPE VINE 



303 



18 inches of this should be left above the ground. This will permit 
the heading of the vines at 15 inches. 

If the vines are to be trellised with one wire, a SG-incii stake 
driven 18 inches into the ground is the proper length. If two wires 
are to be used, a 48-inch stake will be needed, leaving 30 inches above 
the surface. 

If the vines are to be pruned long and the canes tied to the stake, 
a 5-foot stake will usually be needed, and this must be stronger, 2 by 2 
inches square. This stake should be driven 2 feet into the ground. 

These dimensions are all smaller than are usual in California, 
but are quite sufficient for all practical purposes. The stake should 
be placed 1 to 2 inches from the vine on the side opposite to the 




r-:j 




a b c 

Fig. 1. Treatment of an average vine during second season. 

Winter pruning. 

Spring pruning — removal of suckers (S) and thinning of shoots (W). 

Summer treatment — tying to stake and topping. 



prevailing heavy winds. The force of the wind will thus keep the 
vine pressed against the stake and the tying material less liable to 
break. 

First Winter Pruning. — In California, the young vines may be 
pruned at any time after the leaves have fallen, except in sections 
very subject to spring frosts, where it is sometimes advisable to defer 
the pruning until after the top buds of the canes start. 

The way the vines are to be pruned will depend altogether on the 
growth they have made. If the growth has been small the tops are 
pruned exactly like rooted vines before planting. All the canes are 
removed entirely, except the strongest, and this is cut back to two 
buds, (see Fig. 1, a). 



304 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Any vines which have made a strong growth and possess at least 
one cane of which sufficient length is well ripened may be pruned 
for tying up. All the canes are removed entirely, except the strongest, 
and this is cut back to 10, 15, or 18 inches, according to the height at 
which it is intended to head the vine (see Fig. 2, a). The top cut is 
made through a bud, just as in making cuttings. This will facilitate 
tying up and insure the healthy growth of the top bud. 

Sometimes, even when the vine has made sufficient growth, the 
canes are prostrate or crooked and none can be tied up straight to the 
stake. In this case the vine must be pruned like a weak vine — that is, 
thinned to one cane and this cane cut back to two buds. 




Fig. 2. Treatment of an average vine during the third season or of a 
vigorous vine during the second. 

a. Vine pruned to one cane and tied to stake. 

b. Removal of sucker (S) and lower shoots (W) in spring. 

c. Vine in summer at time of pinching. 



In no case should tzvo canes of any length be left, and in all cases 
where it is impossible to obtain the full length of well-ripened wood for 
tying up, the cane should be cut back to two buds. It is very bad prac- 
tice to leave some of the canes of intermediate length, as this causes 
the vines to head out at various heights and produces an irregularity of 
shape which can never be remedied and which interferes with regular 
pruning, cultivation and other vineyard work. 

The idea to be kept in mind is to cut back each winter nearly to the 
ground — that is, to two buds — until a cane is produced with a length 
of well-ripened wood and good buds equal to the height at which the 
vine is to be headed. It is very important that this cane should be 



SECOND YEAR VINE PRUNING 305 

Straight, healthy and well-ripened, as it is from it that the trunks of the 
mature vine develops. AH the vines on which a cane has been left 
should be carefully tied up. Two ties will be needed in most cases. A 
half hitch should be made around the cane below the swelling left by 
the bud which has been removed, and the cane tied firmly to the top of 
the stake. Another tie is made about half-way down the stake. The 
lower tie need not be very tight, and in any case the tying material 
should not be passed completely around the cane, except above the top 
bud, or the vine will be strangled when it commences to grow (see 
Fig. 2 a). Any kind of string or twine, sufificicntly strong to withstand 
the pressure of the growing vine in a heavy wind, may be used. Bind- 
ing twine, or a single strand of good bailing rope, is suitable. No. 16 
or 17 galvanized wire is preferred by some and is better than string, if 
care is taken to remove the bottom ties the following year before they 
strangle the vine. Wire is a little more expensive and takes a little 
longer to put on than string, but holds the vines better and can be used 
for several years. 

SECOND YEAR 

Summer Pruning. — The treatment during the second and third 
spring and summer is of great importance to the future welfare of 
the vine. A little judicious care at this period will avert many troubles 
in later years. It will be necessary to go over the vineyard four or five 
times to do the suckering, topping, and tying which are necessary. 

The shoots starting from the vines which have been cut back to 
two buds should be thinned to a single one. This thinning should be 
done as soon as possible in such a way that it is never necessary to 
remove a shoot more than 3 or 4 inches long (see Fig. I, b). If the 
thinning is deferred until the shoots are a foot or more long the vine 
will be weakened by the removal of so much foliage. If the thinning 
can not be done early, it is better not to do it at all. The object of this 
thinning is to throw all the force and growth of the vine into the cane 
which is to form finally the trunk of the vine. If it is done too late 
not only does the growth not go into this cane, but the vine is weakened 
so much that this cane does not grow so well as it would have done 
without thinning. 

The first thinning can be done with the first hoeing, and the second 
with the suckering. The suckering consists of the removal of all 
shoots which come from below the ground. These also should be 
removed as early as practicable, both to avoid weakening the vine by the 
removal of mature leaves and also because a young sucker is much 
more easily separated from the vine at this time. Every sucker must 
be cut or broken off at the point where it originates. If a little piece 
of the sucker is left, several new suckers will start at the same place. 
The more completely the suckering is done during the first two years, 
the less trouble in this respect there will be in later years. This is 
particularly true of grafted vines. 

A few weeks after the first thinning, the single shoot which has 
been left will have grown 10 or 15 inches. At this length it should be 



306 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

tied up to the stake (see Fig. 1 c). If this tying is neglected or 
deferred too long, a heavy wind is very liable to break off the whole 
shoot. A piece of string tied rather loosely about the middle of the 
shoot is all that is needed. If the vines are to be headed high (18 
inches) another tie near the top of the stake may be necessary. 

For vines which are making only moderate growth this is all the 
treatment needed during the summer. Strong-growing vines in rich 
soil, however, should be topped. 

Topping. — The object of this is to force the shoot to send out 
laterals at the right height above the surface of the soil, to be used as 
spurs during the following year. This topping is an operation which 
requires a good deal of judgment. If the topping is done too soon, 
laterals will not start, but a new terminal shoot will be formed. This is 
not a serious defect, however, but simply necessitates a second topping 
two or three weeks later. Neither will the laterals start if the topping 
is done too late, or if they start they will not mature, and the vine is 
weakened by the removal of foliage without any compensating 
advantage. 

Until experience has shown the proper time for the variety and 
locality, it is best to top when the shoot has grown to from 8 to 12 
inches above the top of the stake, and if necessary top again 
later. 

The shoot should be topped within 1 or 2 inches of the top of the 
stake, if the stakes have been chosen and driven as advised above (see 
Fig. I , c). This will insure the growth of laterals just where they are 
needed for the next winter pruning. 

The vines on which a cane has been left and tied up during the 
preceding winter must be treated a little differently. The removal of 
underground shoots or suckers is the same. Instead of thinning out 
the shoots to a single one, as for the vines just described, all the shoots 
should be left to grow, except those too near the ground (see Fig. 2, 
b). 

As a rule, all shoots between the ground and the middle of the 
stakes should be taken off. It is even more important that this should 
be done early than in the case described above. If the lower shoots are 
allowed to becoxme large and then removed, not only is the vine weak- 
ened by the removal of mature leaves, but the stem of the vine is 
suddenly exposed to the direct rays of the hot sun and is very liable to 
injury. This injury does not show by the peeling off of the bark as 
with fruit trees, but by a general weakening and dwarfing of the vine. 

The shoots coming from the upper half of the cane are to form the 
spurs for the following winter pruning, and can often be left to grow 
without further treatment. 

If the growth is very rapid and succulent, however, it is necessary to 
pinch them, or the first heavy wind may break them off (see Fig. 2, C.) 

Pinching consists in the removal of 1 or 2 inches of growth at the 
extreme tip of the shoot. This delays the growth in length temporarily 
and gives the shoot time to strengthen its tissues before its length gives 
too much leverage to the wind. This pinching usually has to be 
repeated at least once. 



THIRD YEAR VINE PRUNING 307 

Pinching may be replaced by topping a few weeks later, but the 
latter is somewhat weakening to the vine. 

In all summer pruning — that is, the removal of green shoots and 
leaves — of young vines, two things should be kept in mind : First that 
all summer pruning is weakening; second that the object of summer 
pruning of young vmes is to direct the growth as much as possible into 
those parts which are to become permanent portions of the mature 
vine. The weakening effect is almost nil if the shoots or tips are 
removed when they are very small, but may be very serious if large 
shoots are removed or heavily topped. When a large shoot covered 
with leaves is removed it is a total loss to the vine. When a small shoot 
is removed the food materials which would have gone into that shoot 
are diverted to the shoots that remain, and the vigor and size of the 
latter are increased. 

THIRD YEAR 

Winter Pruning. — After the leaves have fallen at the end of the 
third summer every vine should have a well-formed, straight stem with 
two, three, or more canes growmg from the upper part, and the forma- 
tion of the "head" or crown should commence. Any vines which have 
not been brought to this condition must be pruned like two or one-year- 
old vines, as the case may be. 

If the work up to this point has been well done, the formation of 
the head is a simple matter, it consists in leaving two, three, or four 
spurs, arranged as symmetrically as possible near the top of the vine. 
Ihe stronger the vine, as evidenced by the number, length, and thick- 
ness of the canes, the larger the number of spurs and buds that should 
be left. 

A spur consists of the basal portion of a cane, and normally of two 
full internodes. This leaves two buds besides the base bud. The num- 
ber of buds to leave on a spur depends on the strength or thickness of 
the cane from which the spur is made. A thin, or weak, cane should 
be cut back to one bud or even to the base bud. A strong cane, on the 
other hand, should be left with three buds besides the base bud. 

The pruning of each vine requires judgment, and it is impossible 
to give an inflexible rule to follow. The ideal of a perfect vine should 
be kept in mind and each vine pruned as nearly in accordance with this 
ideal as circumstances permit. Fig. 3 represents nearly perfect three- 
year-old vines consisting of two or three symmetrically placed spurs of 
two buds each near the top of the stem. 

Sometimes it is necessary to leave a spur lower down (see Fig. 3, 
b). This spur will be removed the following year after it has produced 
two or three bunches of grapes. Sometimes a vine may be very vig- 
orous but have only two canes properly placed for making spurs. In 
this case the spurs should be left longer — three buds and even in ex- 
treme cases four buds long. 

In stump pruning khere is a diflference of practice as to low head- 
ing according to locality. In the interior regions the vine is now headed 
almost at the surface of the ground ; in the coast regions there is usu- 



308 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 



ally a stump of one to two feet or more. As with trees so with vines, 
the practice is to prune to make lower heads than during the early- 
years of California fruit growing. 

Long Pruning. — Some varieties grown for market and for raisin 
making do not thrive if pruned by the short-spur system. Notable 
among these are the Sultana, Sultanina, (Thompson's Seedless), Em- 
peror and Sabalskanski. There are also a number of wine varieties 
which must be pruned long. Whatever the variety of vine and what- 
ever the system of pruning to be ultimately adopted, the treatment for 
the first two and even three years is practically identical and is that 
which has already been described in detail. 




Fig. 3. Three-year-old vines after pruning. 

a. Average vine with two spurs. 

b. Vigorous vines with three spurs, the lowest of which is to be removed the following 
r. 

c. Vigorous vine with three spurs. 



Long pruning admits of degrees, but it usually signifies using a five 
or six instead of a four-foot stake and leaving the selected canes from 
eighteen inches to three feet longer instead of cutting back to two or 
three buds, as in short pruning. These long canes are securely tied to 
the long stakes. 

With varieties needing long pruning the first two or three buds next 
the old wood do not bear fruit, hence the need of leaving buds farther 
removed from the old wood to secure it. This habit of the vine invites 
the practice of growing a long cane for fruit and at the same time pro- 
viding for wood growth for the following year's fruiting by cutting 



LONG PRUNING OF VINES 309 

another cane from the same spur down to two or three buds. By this 
practice the wood which has borne the fruit is cut back to a bud each 
winter and the cane which has grown only wood is pruned long for 
the fruit of the following summer. A modification of the practice is to 
prune the canes from some of the spurs long, and from other spurs 
short, thus making the spurs alternate from wood bearing to fruit bear- 
ing from year to year. Unless some method is adopted to promote the 
growth of strong canes from near the head of the vine, long pruning 
becomes unsatisfactory. According to the common way with those 
vines which are known to require longer canes for satisfactory bearing, 
such canes are selected when the vine is well established and two, three, 
four, or more canes four or five feet long are tied up vertically to a high 
stake. This process is repeated the next year and the next, and the 
result is, with the Sultanina at least, that after the second or third year 
all the bearing wood is at the top of the stake, and the vine must be 
pruned short again or suckers and watersprouts left as long canes. 
Neither way is satisfactory. 

Two methods have been successfully used to insure the growth of 
new fruit wood every year in a position where it can be utilized. The 
first consists in bending the fruit canes into a circle. This diminishes 
the tendency of the sap of the vine to go to the end of the fruit canes. 
The consequence is that more shoots start in the lower parts of the fruit 
canes. All the shoots on these canes are made weaker and more fruit- 
ful by the bending, and at the same time the sap pressure is increased 
and causes strong shoots to start from the wood-spurs left near the 
bases of the fruit canes. These shoots are used for fruit canes at the 
following winter pruning, and new wood spurs are then left for the 
next year. 

The tying and bending of the fruit canes require great care, and 
repeated suckering and removal of watersprouts are necessary to insure 
a strong growth of replacing canes on the wood spurs. This method 
can be used successfully only by skillful hands. 

The other method requires some form of trellis. The most prac- 
ticable trellis is a wire stretched along the rows about 1^ or 2 feet 
above the surface of the soil. For very vigorous vines in rich soil a 
second wire 12 inches above the first is advisable. 

The pruning is the same as for the method just described. The 
fruit canes, however, instead of being bent in a circle and tied to the 
stake, are placed in a horizontal position and tied to the wire. The 
horizontal position has the same efifect as curving in promoting the 
starting of more shoots on the fruit canes and the consequent production 
of more bunches of grapes. At the same time the buds on the Avood 
spurs are forced to start, and not being shaded they tend to grow vig- 
orously. It is best to tie the shoots from the wood spurs in a vertical 
position to the stake, and they should not be topped. This system of 
pruning is not only theoretically correct, but is easy to explain to prun- 
ers, and can be carried out much more perfectly than the first method 
with ordinary labor. 

Whatever system of winter pruning is adopted with Sultanina, 
careful summer pruning, suckering, sprouting, and topping are neces- 
sary for the best results. This variety has a tendency to send out large 



310 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

numbers of suckers from below ground and watersprouts from the old 
wood. These shoots are usually sterile, grow vigorously, and unless 
removed in time divert the energies of the vine from the fruit and 
fruit shoots. Two or three times during the spring the vineyard should 
be gone over carefully and all sterile shoots which are not needed to 
balance the vine or to replace weak or missing arms should be removed. 
This removal of shoots should be done in such a way that no shoot 
longer than 12 inches is ever removed. If the watersprouts are allowed 
to grow large their removal weakens the vine. The shoots which are 
to give fruit canes for the following year should not be topped. The 
shoots from the horizontal fruit canes on the trellises, however, will set 
their fruit better and are less likely to be broken by the wind if they 
are pinched or topped early. 



SUMMER PRUNING AND SUCKERING 

Summer pruning or topping of bearing vines is usually practiced. 
Some follow the pinching process, by which the terminal of the grow- 
ing cane is nipped off with the thumb and finger when it has grown 
out about two feet. Others wait longer and then slash off the ends of 
the canes with a sickle. The tendency is to leave summer pruning until 
too late and to slash off wood indiscriminately, to the injury of the vine. 
Summer pruning, if done early enough, and this would be while the 
growth is still soft at the point of removal, will induce the growth of 
laterals and will shade and improve the fruit, and at the same time 
thicken the growth of the main cane and strengthen its connection 
with the spur. Slashing of canes too late in the season deprives the 
fruit of the service of enough leaf surface for the elaboration of the 
sap, often seriously checks the growth of the vine, and in hot regions, 
induces sunburn. The first summer pruning should be done soon after 
the bloom, but not during blooming. The second could take place 
whenever the canes or laterals extend beyond the length necessary to 
shade the grapes. 

Suckering is an important process and usually has to be attended to 
at least twice in the season. It consists in removing all shoots from 
old wood which are not provided for at the previous winter pruning. 
The growth of these suckers takes sap which should go to the other 
canes. All such shoots should be rubbed or pulled off while they are 
still soft ; if a sucker puts out at a point where it would be desirable to 
have a spur to balance the head of the yine, it should of course be 
allowed to grow, to be cut back to two buds the following winter. By 
such selection of suckers new spurs are secured to replace old and 
failing ones. 

GENERAL NOTES ON PRUNING 

Longer or shorter pruning produces effects not only upon the 
amount of early ripening of the fruit of certain varieties, but upon 
quality, as shown in the wines. Such effects have to be discerned by 
local observation. 



GENERAL NOTES ON VINE PRUNING 311 

It is a very difficult matter to lay clown any rule for pruning a vine- 
yard, so much depends on the age of the vines, the different varieties, 
and the quality of the soil. A basis on which to build a theory on the 
subject might be found in and through an understanding of the quan- 
tity of grapes that may be expected from a vine, as the secret of prun- 
ing is to keep a just medium between the production of grapes to the 
injury of the vine and its wood and an overproduction of wood to the 
detriment of the crop. In older vines a proportion should be maintained 
between the vigor of the vines and the crop desired ; each bud may be 
considered good for two bunches of grapes the ordinary size, and 
upon this estimate may be obtained. It must be borne in mind that the 
result of overloading the vine is detrimental to its vigor and health, 
while the reverse will not injure it, but will lessen the profits for that 
season, often giving greatly increased returns in after years. 

Close attention should be given to the growth of the wood and fruit 
of the preceding year. If the canes are very large and the bunches of 
grapes poor and there are many suckers, it indicates that more eyes are 
necessary. On the contrary, if the canes are small, and the bunches of 
grapes numerous and straggling, and the ripening not even, it indicates 
that the number of eyes left should be less. 

Pruning may be regulated to produce a good second crop of grapes 
or to prevent the formation of a second crop. The second crop is 
often desirable in raisin and table varieties, but undesirable in wine 
varieties. 

Attention should be paid to the tools used in pruning. Let the 
blades be kept sharp and thin ; large shears are very apt to bruise the 
wood more than small ones. 

Pruning is done after the fall of the leaves and before the swelling 
of the buds, usually in January and February. Early pruning has a 
tendency to make the vines start growth early, consequently in frosty 
situations pruning is often deferred till late in the winter — as late as 
the middle of March in some cases. But it is inconvenient to do a large 
amount of pruning so late. At anv time in the winter the canes can be 
cut back to 15 or 18 inches and the vineyard cleaned up. When the 
outer buds on these long spurs start, cut back to the two buds next the 
old wood and they will start 15 or 20 days later than if the vines had 
been pruned short earlier in the season. This practice has been followed 
with marked advantage in some regions liable to late spring frosts. 
The bleeding wdiich follows late pruning is no loss to the vine, accord- 
ing to observation of late-pruned vines. 

The proper treatment of vines injured by spring frosts is clearly 
the immediate removal, by a sharp downward jerk, of the frosted shoots. 
Careful experiment has proved that the vines that were not stripped 
did not do as well as the others, as the dormant buds in many cases did 
not come out. and those that came out were not healthy and strong, and 
hardly had any grapes. The damaged shoots that were not removed 
died gradually, and at the junction with the cane new shoots came out 
without any grapes at all. while two-thirds of a crop came on the frost- 
bitten vines, which were stripped of the damaged canes ; hardly and first 
crop and only a second crop on the vines which were not attended to. 



312 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

DISEASES OF THE VINE 

One of the most prevalent diseases of the vine in Cahfornia is caused 
by a funo^us which affects leaves, canes, and berries, and is locally 
known as "mildew." This disease is recognized by grayish white color- 
ing of the affected leaves, which, as the disease progresses, shrivel and 
dry up ; the young cane also blackens and dries, and the berries show 
whitish patches, which become darker colored and the berries crack 
open. The usual remedy for the trouble is finely-ground or sublimed 
sulphur applied several times during the season. Definite reference 
may be found in the chapter on diseases of trees and vines. 

The Bordeaux Mixture and other copper preparations are some- 
times useful upon grape-vines, as will be cited in the chapter on plant 
diseases. 

Coulure. — A frequent misfortune of the vine, and for which no 
remedy is yet known, is coulure, a term signifying the failure of the 
fruit to set or to remain on the cluster. This occurs in varying degrees 
from the loss of a few berries to the almost complete clearing of fruit 
from the stem. It is worse with some varieties than others and in some 
localities than others. The trouble is believed to arise from various 
causes. 

There is, also, occurring with more or less frequency, a reddening 
and death of the vine leaves, supposed to be identical with the trouble 
known to the French as "rougeole." The leaves show light-colored 
spots at first, which afterward turn red and finally involve the whole 
leaf or cane, and sometimes the whole vine. It usually occurs in mid- 
summer, and is not necessarily fatal in its effects. 

Root Knot. — An evil occurring on the main stem of the vine, 
generally near the surface of the ground, is an excrescence of woody 
character commonly called "black knot." There has been much dis- 
cussion as to the cause of this abnormal growth, without full agree- 
ment among observers. Some attribute the knots to injuries to the 
stump in cultivation, others to outbursts of sap which the short pruning 
system does not give top growth enough to dispose of, and to various 
other causes, but the agency is now definitely known to be invasion by 
bacteria. This is analogous to the "crown knot" of fruit trees which 
will be mentioned in the chapter on plant diseases. 

Anaheim Disease. — There has prevailed for several years in 
California a mysterious disease of the vine known as the "Anaheim 
disease," because its evil work first appeared in that vicinity. It de- 
stroyed many thousand acres of vines and led to the abandonment of 
grape growing in some regions in southern California. The fullest 
statements concerning its performance can be found in Bulletin No. 2, 
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Vegetable Pathology, by 
Newton B. Pierce, 1892, and Farmers' Bulletin No. 30, 1895. Fortun- 
ately during recent years the trouble has been less aggressive but neither 
its nature nor satisfactory treatment has been fully demonstrated. The 
latest available information concerning it and other troubles of the vine 
can be had by application to the University Experiment Station at 
Berkeley. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
GRAPE VARIETIES IN CALIFORNIA 

Large collections of grape varieties have been brought into Cali- 
fornia during the last forty-five years. They were sought in all grape 
countries, and from such wide experimental planting a few have sur- 
vived in popular esteem and are now chiefly grown. Being derived 
from different countries, they came bearing many names. Some of 
these have been preserved, some wholly lost, and replaced with local 
appellations. The result is that our gra])e nomenclature is full of con- 
fusion. Some varieties have been identified by the means of the stand- 
ard French grape literature ; others are apparently unknown to the 
compilers of that literature. It is, therefore, impossible to-day to de- 
termine a number of our most popular table and shipping grapes, as 
well as some of the wine varieties. The relative importance of the 
most popular table and raisin grapes is shown in the accompanying tabu- 
lation of reports from growers who were asked to name the grapes 
which they considered best worth planting in 1914: 



TABLE AND RAISIN GRAPE VARIETIES APPROVED BY 
CALIFORNIA GROWERS 



Central Sacrament(3 San Joaquin 

GRAPES. Coast valley and valley and Southern 

valleys. foothills. footliills California. 

Muscat * ** ** * 

Tokay * ** * ** 

Corniclion * ** * ** 

Sultanina (Thompson) * ** ** ** 

Emperor ** ** 

Malaga * ** ** ** 

Fchcr Zagos ... * 

Rose of Peru ** * * 

Black Morocco * * * * 

Verdal * ... * 

Sultana * * 

Mission * * * * 

Black Hamburg * * * * 

Black Ferrara * 

Gros Colman ... * 

Zabalkanski ... * 

Palomino * * 

Sweetwater * ** * 

Pierce * ... ... * 

Concord * ... ... ** 

Delaware * ... ... * 

Niagara * 

Campbell's Early ^ ... ... * 

Agawam ... ... * 

•Indicates that the variety is approved in the region designated. 
**Most highly commended. 

313 



314 CALIFORNIA FRUITS! HOW TO GROW THEM 

The last six named are grapes of popular eastern types. They are 
of exceedingly small commercial importance and are chiefly grown in 
southern California ; not because eastern varieties are better suited to 
local conditions there than in other parts of the State but because there 
are more people who enjoy them. 

In order to characterize our leading table grapes, descriptions will 
be quoted from the best available local authorities, as follows : 

Early Black July; syns. Madeleine, Madeline Noir, etc. — "Leaves rather small, 
light green above and beneath; bunches small and compact; berries small, quite 
round ; skin thick, black, covered with a blue bloom ; flavor moderately sweet, 
but not rich nor perfumed. The earliest grape, and chiefly valued for dessert on 
that account." — Hyatt. 

White July; syn. Luglicnga. — "Vine strong-growing and sensitive to frost; 
leaves of medium size, deeply five-lobed, dark green, glabrous on both sides, 
sharply toothed, the terminal tooth of each lobe very long and acuminate ; bunches 
of medium size, well filled ; berries of medium size, oval, at first green, becoming 
yellow with overripeness, with thin skin, crisp, firm flesh, and agreeable flavor." — 
Bioletti. The Luglienga, which means July grape, is one of the earliest grapes 
known. 

Early Madeleine; syn. Madeleine Angevine. — "Moderate grower, with long- 
jointed, brown wood; leaf medium, deeply lobed, dark green above, tomentose 
below ; young points reddish, woolly, slender ; bunch medium, compact, should- 
dered ; berry medium, oblong, yellowish green, transparent, rather thick skin, 
sweet and juicy. Vine a shy bearer when frost is prevalent." — Husmann. 

Chasselas Dore ; sjm. Fontainebleau, Szveetwater. — "A rather vigorous grower, 
with medium or somewhat slender canes of a reddish-brown color ; young shoots 
of garnet color, nearly or quite glabrous ; leaves rather below average size, a 
little longer than wide, glabrous above and nearly so below, except for a few 
hairs on the main nerves, with well-marked sinuses, the petiolar one often closed, 
the petiole long, rather slender, and rose-colored ; bunches of medium or over- 
medium size, conico-cylindrical shouldered, more or less compact ; berries medium 
to large, with firm but tender skin, small seeds ; of delicate flavor and texture, at 
first crisp but becoming soft with full maturity. The grapes are of a clear green 
color, tinged with a beautiful golden bronze where exposed to the sun." — Bioletti. 

Chasselas Rose. — Fruit resembling foregoing, except that both bunch and 
berries are usually smaller, and flavor is more pronounced. 

Chasselas Victoria. — "Vine vigorous, very short-jointed and brittle, and bears 
well with short pruning; wood grayish yellow, thick and strong, leaf light green, 
deeply lobed and shining; young shoots with numerous laterals; bunch very large 
and heavy, often weighing five pounds, shouldered, very compact ; stem brown, 
very thick; berry medium, round, pale lilac, purple, with lilac bloom, juicy, vinous, 
refreshing." — Husmann. 

Palomino; syn. Golden Chasselas. — "The vine quite largely grown as 'Golden 
Chasselas' is undoubtedly identical with the Listan, or Palomino." — Hilgard. 
"Vine a fair grower; wood close-jointed; leaf medium, oblong, deeply lobed, 
bright green above, grayish grain and tomentose below, stem short, young points 
with reddish tint and woolly; bunch large, conical, rather loose and shouldered; 
berry round, full medium, sometimes flat, pale green with yellowish tinge ; thin 
skin, juicy and sweet, resembling Chasselas." — Husmann. 

Black Malvoise. — "Vine a strong grower; wood long-jointed, rather slender, 
light brown ; leaf medium size, oval, rather evenly and deeply five-lobed ; basal 
sinus moderately open, with parallel sides, upper surface smooth, almost glabrous, 
lower surface lightly tomentose on the veins and veinlets ; bunches large, rather 
loose, branching ; berries large, oblong, reddish black with faint bloom ; flesh 
juicy, flavor neutral." — Hilgard. Widely grown as an early table grape. 

Mission. — "This variety, grown at the old missions, has never been determined, 
nor its exact source ascertained. It is regarded by some as a most delicious table 
grape. It can be found in small areas in every county of the State adapted to 
the grape. Vine a strong grower; wood short-jointed, dull dark to brown to 



GRAPES GROWN IN CALIFORNIA 315 

grayish ; leaf above medium size, slightly oblong, with large, deeply-cut, compound 
teeth basal, sinus widely opened, primary sinuses, shallow and narrow, secondary 
sinuses ill-deiinod, smooth on both sides, light green below with light, scattered 
tomentum." — Hilgard. "Bunches slightly shouldered, loose, divided into many 
small, distinct lateral clusters; berries medium size, round, purple black, heavy 
bloom; exceedingly sweet, juicy, and delicious; seeds rather large; skin thin." 
—Hyatt. 

.\[uscatcl; syn. llltitc Froittigna)i. — "Vine of medium size, with strong, spread- 
ing canes ; canes reddish-brown, with short internodes ; leaves of medium size, 
thin, five-lobcd ; glabrous except for a few hairs on the lower side of the well- 
marked ribs; bunches long, cylindrical, regular, compact; berries round, golden- 
yellow, becoming amber-colored, very sweet and of marked aroma. Ripens a 
little later than the Chasselas." — Bioletti. 

IVhite Muscat of Alexandria* — "Vine a short, rather straggling and bushy 
grower, well adapted to short stool pruning, as it forms rather a bush than a 
vine; wood gray, with dark spots, short-jointed; leaf round, five-lobed, bright 
green above, lighter green below ; young shoots a bright green. The laterals pro- 
duce a second and even a third crop ; bunch long and loose, shouldered ; berry 
oblong, a light yellow when fully matured, transparent, covered with white bloom, 
fleshy, with thick skin, very sweet and decidedly musky." — Husmatui. The lead- 
ing table grape of California. Rejected for irregular bearing on some mesa lands 
in Southern California. 

Muscatel Gordo Blanco. — "Muscatel Gordo Blanco has a closer bunch and 
rounder berry than the Muscat. The skin is softer and the pulp is not quite so 
hard. The berry inclines to be a little darker in color and not nearly so green 
when it is ripe, and I think not quite as long as the Muscat of Alexandria. If 
the Muscat would set as well as the Muscatel, the difficulty would be obviated. 
One very important difference is that when you come to dry them, the Muscat of 
Alexandria loses the bloom very rapidly. The bloom comes off when you come 
to dry and pack them. But the Muscatel does not lose its bloom. The Muscat 
of Alexandria has to be dried a little more than the Muscatel to bring it into a 
keeping condition under the same condition of ripeness." — R. B. Bloivers. 

"The growth of the Muscatel or Gordo Blanco vine is low and spreading, with 
no upright branches in the center ; clusters heavy, and, when perfect, close and 
shouldered; berries round and large (the greatest circumference being at the 
center), a crease often being found at the apex of the berry; color green, or. when 
fully ripe, amber green or yellow. Distinguished from Muscat of Alexandria 
by low depressed growth of vine, closer cluster, rounder berries, and by thicker 
and finer bloom. The Muscatel is the choice raisin grape for the San Joaquin 
Valley, and for the interior generally." — Dr. Eiscn. 

Huasco Muscat. — A variety brought from Chile, but after wide trial in Cali- 
fornia, seems not superior to the other White Muscat varieties previously men- 
tioned. Its dense cluster is not well adapted to raisin making. It is said, 
however, to be less subject to coulure. 

Felier Ssaf;os. — "Vine a strong grower and heavy bearer ; branches erect but 
slender; leaves glossy, entire; bunches medium to small, pointed, and solid; 
berries greenish amber, medium oval, pointed, with thin skin and few small 
seeds; flesh not firm, but dries well and makes a good raisin." — Dr. Eiscn. 

Larga Bloom ; syn. Uva Larga. — A variety of Muscat said to be named because 
of the length of its berries, but held by some growers to be indistinguishable from 
Muscatel Gordo Blanco. An excellent raisin grape, but now chiefly grown as a 
table fruit in the Santa Cruz Mountains. 

IVhite Malaga. — "Vine a strong grower; wood reddish brown, short-jointed; 
leaf medium, leathery smooth, deeply lobed, light shining green above; bunch very 
large, loose shouldered, long; stem long and flexible; berry very large, oval, 
yellowish green, covered with white bloom ; thick skin, fleshy." — Husmann. Grown 

•There is much doubt about the White Muscats as grown in California. Some claim 
inability to distinguish between certain grapes of the Muscat type which are being grown in 
this Slate under distinctive names; others pronounce them clearly different varieties. Th« 
matter can not be adjusted at present. 



316 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

in Southern California in situations where the Muscat does not do well ; also 
elsewhere as a table grape, and to some extent in San Joaquin Valley for raisins. 

Sultana; syn. Seedless Sultaona. — "Vine vigorous, upright; leaves large, five- 
lobed, with rather large sinuses, Hght colored, and coarsely toothed ; bunches 
large, long-cylindrical, with heavy shoulders or wings, well filled when not cul- 
tured, but not compacted ; berries small, round, firm and crisp, golden-yellow, and 
without seeds." — Bioletti. In California the variety is apt to have some seeds. 
It has more acid, and therefore greater piquancy of flavor, that Thompson's 
Seedless, but the latter has recently far outstripped it in popularity among 
growers. 

Thompson's Seedless; syn. Sultauina. — Named by Sutter County Horticultural 
Society, after W. Thompson, Sr., of Yuba City, who procured the cutting in 1878, 
from Ellwanger & Barry, of Rochester, New York. It was by them described as 
"a grape from Constantinople, named Lady Decoverly." When it fruited in 
Sutter county, it was seen to be superior to the Sultana, and has been propagated 
largely. It was first widely distributed by J. P. Onstott, of Yuba City, and 
others, and is now to be found in all parts of the State. The variety is described 
by Dr. Eisen as follows. "Oval ; greenish-yellow ; as large as a Sultana ; seedless, 
with a thin skin ; good, but not strong flavor, and without that acid which charac- 
terizes the Sultana grape and raisins ; bunches large or very large ; vine an 
enormous bearer." Mr. Bioletti considers the variety identical with the Sultanina 
of Asia Minor, and gives this description : "Vine very vigorous and with large 
trunk and verv long canes ; leaves glabrous on both sides, dark yellow-green 
above and light below, generally three-lobed, with shallow sinuses, teeth short and 
obtuse, bunch large conico-cylindrical, well filled, on herbaceous peduncles ; 
berries under medium ; ellipsoidol, crisp, of neutral flavor, with moderately thick 
skin of a fine golden-yellow color." 

Flame Tokay; syn. Flame-colored Tokay, Flaming Tokay. — "Vine a strong 
grower, large in all its proportions, wood, joints, leaves; wood dark brown, 
straight, with long joints; leaves dark green, with a brownish tinge; lightly lobed ; 
bunch very large, sometimes weighing eight to nine pounds, moderately compact, 
shouldered ; berry very large, oblong, red, covered with fine lilac bloom ; fleshy 
and crackling, firm ; ripens late." — Husmann. The leading shipping grape of the 
State, quality low. Defective in color in some localities. 

Black Hamburg. — "Bunches very large, from six to ten inches in length, very 
broad at the shoulders, tapering to a point gradually ; berries very large, round, 
slightly inclining to oval; skin rather thick, deep purple, very black at maturity; 
very sugary, juicy, and rich." — Hyatt. A very popular market grape. 

Rose of Peru; syn. Black Prince (?). — "Vine a strong grower, with dark 
brown, short-jointed wood; leaf deep green above, lighter green and tomentose 
below ; bunch very large, shouldered, rather loose ; berry round, large, black, with 
firm and crackling flesh, ripens rather late ; a very handsome and productive 
variety, of good quality, but not adapted for long shipment." — Husmann. 

Moscatello Fino ; syn. Moscatello Nero, Black Muscat. — "Leaves of medium 
size, with deep upper and shallow lower sinuses, glabrous above, slightly downy 
below, and very hairy on the veins, teeth long and sharp ; bunches large to very 
large, long, loose, conico-cylindrical, and winged ; berries very large, on long, 
thin pedicels ; skin well colored, thin but tough ; flesh soft and juicy, with delicate 
Muscat aroma. An excellent table grape. It is a heavy bearer, and produces 
very fine-looking bunches of dark colored grapes. Rather late." — Bioletti. 

Purple Damascus; syn. Black Damascus. — "Vine a medium grower ; wood 
light brown striped with darker brown, short-jointed; leaf round, five-lobed, 
smooth, light green above, tomentose beneath ; stem reddish, large, long and 
woody ; bunch large, loose, shouldered ; berry very large, oblong, dark blue, 
covered with lighter bloom, meaty, skin thick, ripens late." — Husmann. 

Purple Cornichon; syn. Black Cornichon. — "Vine a heavy grower, with thick, 
light brown, short-jointed wood; leaves large, longer than wide, deeply five- 
lobed, dark green above, and lighter and very hairy below, coarsely tootjfied, and 
with short, thick petiole ; bunches very large, loose, on long pedunckles ; berries 
large, long, more or less curved, darkly colored and spotted, thick-skinned, and 



GRAPES GROWN IN CALIFORNIA 317 

on long pedicles. Desirable on account of its attractive appearance, curious shape, 
excellent shipping qualities, and late ripening." — Bioletti. 

White Cornichon. — Resembles Purple Cornichon in shape and flavor, but has 
very thin and tender skin, which makes it better for the table, but poorer for 
shipping. Leaves not deeply cut ; smooth on both sides. 

Emperor. — "Vine a strong, vigorous grower; leaves very large, with five shal- 
low lobes, short, obtuse teeth glabrous above, woolly beneath, light green in 
color ; bunches very large, long conical, loose, with large, dull purple, oval, firm 
berries." — Bioletti. An excellent shipping grape, largely grown by R. B. Blowers, 
of Woodland, Yolo county, by whom its merits were first announced. Pro- 
nounced unsatisfactory because of irregular setting and non-ripening in localities 
near the coast in Northern California, and generally condemned in Southern 
California. Seems best adapted to interior situations and is chiefly grown for 
shipping in the San Joaquin Valley. 

Black Ferrara. — A large black grape ; large bunches ; berries cling well to the 
stem, thick-skinned, flavor superior. An excellent local market variety and long- 
distance shipper. 

Gros Colma?i; syn. Dodrclabi. — "Vine strong-growing, with dark brownish 
wood ; leaves very large, round, thick, very slightly lobed, shortly and bluntly 
toothed, glabrous above, close-woolly below ; bunches large, short, well filled, but 
not compact; berries very large, round, dark blue, with thick but tender skin. 
Remarkable as having the largest berries of any round berry variety known, 
and is probably the handsomest black table grape grown. The grapes have good 
keeping qualities, except that they are liable to crack." — Bioletti. 

Black Morocco. — "Vine a strong grower, with thin, spreading canes, leaves, 
under medium size, very deeply five-lobed, even when very young, the younger 
leaves truncate at base, giving them a semi-circular outline, with long, sharp 
teeth alternating with very small ones, glabrous on both sides, bunches very 
large, short, shouldered, and compact ; berries very large, round, often angular 
from compression, fleshy, of neutral flavor, dull purple color or colorless in the 
center of the bunch. Remarkable for the number of second-crop bunches which 
it produces on the laterals. Late in ripening and of very fine appearance ; a fairly 
good shipping grape, but difficult to pack on account of the size and rigidity of 
the bunches. The grapes are of an agreeable crispness, but lacking in flavor." 
— Bioletti.. Vine quite subject to root knot. 

Verdal; Aspiran Blanc. — "Vine of medium vigor and rather hardy; canes 
somewhat slender and half erect ; leaves of average size, glabrous on both sur- 
faces, except below near the axis of the main nerves, sinuses well marked 
and generally closed, giving the leaf the appearance of having five holes ; teeth 
long, unequal, and somewhat acuminate ; bunches large to very large, irregular 
long-conical, without any or with small shoulders, well-filled to compact ; berries 
yellowish-green, large to very large, crisp, with thick but tender skin, agreeable, 
but without marked flavor." — Bioletti. Largely grown as a late table grape ; in 
good condition ; in some regions as late as November. 

Almeria. — "Vine vigorous; leaves of medium size, round and slightly or not 
at all lobed, quite glabrous on both sides, teeth obtuse and alternately large and 
small ; bunches large, loose or compact, irregular conical ; berries from small to 
large, cylindrical, flattened on the ends, very hard and tasteless." — Bioletti. The 
grape cultivated at the University Experiment Stations under this name is one 
of the several varieties which are shipped in such large quantities from Malaga 
and Almeria packed in cork-dust. The grapes ripen late and attain about 20 per 
cent of sugar. They have remarkable keeping Qualities. Vine needs long pruning, 
and is only adapted to hot, interior situations. 

There are many other vinifera varieties which are grown to a hm- 
ited extent either for raisins or for table use. Among these are the 
Canon Plall Muscat, the White Tokay, White Champion, Cinsaut, Za- 
balskanski, etc., for table use ; the White and Black Corinth, for dry- 
ing, of which the white is much more productive than the black, but the 
product sells for less than our other seedless raisins and therefore is 



318 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

not largely undertaken. With grapes, as with other market fruits, the 
planter usually confines his attention to a very few popular kinds. The 
relative standing of grape varieties in the raisin industry is shown by 
the California Board of Viticultural Commissioners' statement of the 
raisin product of 1913 : 

Pounds of raisins. 

Muscats 96,588,798 

Thompson (Sultanina) 18,290,922 

Sultanas 12,159,861 

Malagas 1,266,983 

Faber Szagos 529,707 

Black dried grapes 238,143 

Total 129,074,414 



EASTERN GRAPES 

Though many of the improved varieties of the grape species indi- 
genous east of the Rocky Mountains, and of the hybrids between these 
species and the vinifera, have been introduced in California, their 
growth for table fruit is almost of insignificant proportions, and does 
not constitute even a respectable fraction of one per cent of our grape 
area. The popular taste decidedly prefers the vinifera varieties. There 
is, however, a variety believed to be of local origin, which is worthy 
of mention as follows : 

Isabella Regia — "A remarkable, giant-leaved, and very prolific sport of the 
Isabella, originating by bud-variation with Mr. J. P. Pierce, of Santa Clara. 
The berries, like the leaves, are of extraordinary size, and when ripe the fruit 
is exceedingly sweet and strongly aromatic. It is, therefore, acceptable as a 
showy, perfumed table grape, much liked by some, but readily surfeiting those 
who are accustomed to the vinifera grapes.. The berries are too soft for ship- 
ment to any distance, but all things considered, keep fairly." — Hilgard. Grown 
as the "California Concord" in the Los Angeles region. 



WINE GRAPES GROWN IN CALIFORNIA 

Progress is being continually made in the propagation of varieties 
yielding wine, and in the manufacture thereof. The hosts of consid- 
erations involved in this eflfort are beyond the scope of this work and 
largely beyond the writer's knowledge. The grapes which are chiefly 
commended by growers for the kinds of wine to which they are adapted 
are as follows : Zinfandel, Alicante, Bouschet, Petite Sirah, Colombar, 
Grenache, Valdepenas, Palomino, West's Prolific, Semillon, Carignane, 
Green Hungarian, Burger, Mondeuse, Riesling, Cabernet, Chardonay, 
Cabernet, Mataro, Sultanina, Blaue Elbe, etc. 



PART FI\'E: SEMI-TROPICAL FRUITS 



CHAPTER XXIX 
DATE CULTURE IN OUR DESERT AREAS 

Ever since the arid, semi-tropical regions of the United States be- 
came known through the narratives of explorers, the date pahn (Phoe- 
nix dactyhfera) has been projected as a plant likely to demonstrate 
commercial value in American like that which it has held for centuries 
in the arid regions of Asia and Africa. This idea was also cherished 
even at an earlier date by the Spanish missionaries who brought the 
palm to California, as will be described presently. During the last 
decade the problem of introducing and establishing a date-growing 
industry has been taken up more seriously and systematically than ever 
before and must now be looked upon as approaching successful solution. 
As, however, the undertaking is still in an experimental stage and 
appeals to relatively few people as a line of investment, no attempt will 
be made to discuss the date in detail. Instead, citation will be made of 
sources whence the reader who desires them can easily secure informa- 
tion of date-growing methods in the old countries, discussion of their 
suitability to our conditions and suggestions of ways to enter upon date- 
growing in California.* 

The date palm was brought to California by the padres, and the 
oldest date trees in the State are the survivors of their early plantings. 
Such trees are found at the San Diego ]\Iission. They are conjectured 
to be more than a century old, and they have survived drought and 
neglect, making unsuccessful eflfort at fruiting, for, according to com- 
mon report, the fruit does not ripen, but whether owing to the unfavor- 
able conditions indicated, or to lack of fertilization of the bloom, is not 
known. There are trees at Ventura, on the site of the garden of the 
old mission at San Buena Ventura, about forty feet in height and ten 
feet in circumference at the base, with long, graceful fern-like leaves, 
which put forth about thirty fe^t from the ground. 

The ill success of these old trees in the direction of fruit bearing 
probably long prevented further attention to the date as a profitable 
growth. Still there were date palms grown from seed of the com- 
mercial date planted here and there for ornament or out of curiosity, 
and in due course of time the fruit appeared. The first public exhibi- 
tion of California dates known to the writer was made at the Mechanic's 



•The Date Palm and its Utilization in the Southwestcin States, by Walter T. Swingle, 
Bulletin 53, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dpt of Agr., Washington, 1904. 

Date Varieties and Date Culture in Tunis, by T. II. Kearney, Bulletin 92. Ibid, 1906. 

Date Growing in Southern California, by S. C. Masin. Report of Riverside Fruit Grow- 
ers' Convention, State Horticaltural Commissioner, Sacramento, 1908. 

Date Growing in the Old and New Worlds, by Paul B. Popenoe, Altadena, California, 
191.V A fine, illustrated treatise. 

Also publications of Arizona Experiment Station, Tucson, and California Experiment Sta- 
tion, Berkeley. 

319 



320 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Institute Fair, in San Francisco, in September, 1877. The fruit was 
grown on the south bank of Putah Creek, the northern boundary of 
Solano County, the situation being sHghtly above the level of the plain 
of the Sacramento Valley, which lies east of it. The plants were grown 
by the late J. R. Wolfskill, from seed of commercial dates purchased in 
San Francisco, and planted in 1858 or 1859. The seed germinated 
readily, and the young plants were set out in a row about one hundred 
feet south of Putah Creek, on a rich, fine, sandy loam lying about 
twenty-five feet above the bed of the creek. The plants received good 
cultivation but no irrigation. This treatment was combined after the 
property passed into the hands of the late S. C. Wolfskill, the plants 
being allowed to remain in the row as originally planted, and they have 
attained great size, considering their crowded condition. 

Another bearing date palm stands about a mile eastward of the 
situation just described, near the residence of the late J. R. Wolfskill. 
It was grown from seed of the date of commerce, which was planted in 
1863, and the tree bore its first fruit in 1880. Near it stands a taller 
date palm, which bears staminate bloom. This latter tree was originally 
one of the row previously described, and was successfully moved to its 
present situation after attaining considerable size. 

The fruit of the two bearing palms differs notably in appearance. 
That of the first mentioned tree is of bright yellow color and angular 
outline ; that of the second tree is wine red, with smooth surface. 

During recent years the date has fruited at many places in California 
and Arizona. There is little doubt that it will succeed in any of the in- 
terior regions which have a sufficiently high summer temperature, and 
even the so-called Colorado Desert may be dotted with groves of date 
palms as portions of it now are with groves of the majestic fan palm 
of California. 

Soils and Waters for the Date. — Until recently the date palm 
has only been planted on good orchard land, but, according to experi- 
ence in date-growing countries, the tree does not require rich soil, but 
on the contrary, will thrive in a soil poor in humus — too poor and too 
purely mineral for any other fruit tree ; and it produces the finest and 
best flavored dates, nourished by water too alkaline for man and beast 
to drink. These observations warrant the trials of the tree which are 
now being made in situations not adapted to other fruits. 



PROPAGATION OF THE DATE 

The date palm grows readily from the seeds of the dried date of 
commerce, and, as has been intimated, the trees now fruiting in this 
State have been obtained in this way. By the use of seed one gets, 
however, only seedlings, and the chance of thus securing a really fine 
variety is probably not greater than with other fruit tree seedlings. In 
date-growing countries the best varieties are propagated by rooting the 
off-sets, sprouts, or suckers which appear at the base of the old palms. 
To secure the best foreign varieties such plants must be imported. The 
first successful enterprise of this kind was accomplished in the summer 




Plate XIII — Profuse bearing of vine by long pruning. 
(See page 308.) 



IMPORTATION OF FOREIGN DATES 321 

of 1890 by the United States Department of Agriculture, under the 
direction of H. E. Van Deman, then chief of the Division of Pomology. 
The plants were divided between New Mexico, Arizona and California. 
The plants for California were sent to the Department of Agriculture 
of the University of CaHfornia. and were planted at the experiment sta- 
tions at Tulare and at Pomona, some of them being subsequently trans- 
planted to the United States Date Garden at Mecca in the Colorado 
desert region. Upon fruiting a number of these plants, they seemed to 
be only seedlings and not the best foreign varieties, as represented. 

A full account of this effort and its outcome is given in Bulletin 29, 
of the Arizona Experiment Station. 

The United States Department of Agriculture undertook arrange- 
ments in 18W for new importations, which were successfully made, but 
all that was anticipated in securing valuable varieties was not attained. 
Director R. H. Forbes, of the Arizona Experiment Station, writes in 
Timely Hints No. 72 (April, 1908) : 

"Several of the Old World varieties which have thus far fruited 
have failed to make good for various reasons. Some have required a 
longer growing season to mature ; others have soured in damp or cool 
weather, and still others do not appeal to the American consumer. A 
few varieties have proved acceptable in all respects, and to such as these 
we must look for future commercial developments." 

Of the foreign varieties thus introduced the following have been 
produced in small commercial quantities : Rhars, Tedalla, Birket el 
Haggi and Deglet Noor. 

During recent years large importations for commercial planting in 
southeastern California have been made by Mr. Popenoe, after search- 
ing foreign investigations. 

Growing Palms from Seed. — Seeds taken from the dried dates 
of commerce germinate readily ; in fact, seedlings frequently appear in 
the gutters of unpaved streets where the seeds have been thrown during 
the rainy season. Director Forbes, of the Arizona Station, says that 
seeds will come up more promptly if first stratified. This may be done 
by taking a gasoline can or deep box and placing three inches of sand in 
the bottom after making a number of holes in it for drainage. The 
seeds are placed upon this layer and the can or box filled with sand, the 
whole then being put in a sheltered place and kept moist from three to 
six weeks, when the seeds will be soft and ready for prompt growth 
when planted. The seedlings may be started in nursery rows for trans- 
planting after one to three years, or if frequent irrigations may be 
relied on, in the field where the trees are to remain. 

Dr. W. T. Swingle, whose work on date growing has already been 
cited, gives the following suggestions on the growing of seedlings and 
their subsequent handling to determine sex and to select bearing palms 
of desirable type: 

The seed should be planted rather thickly in well-drained beds of fertile soil, 
free from alkali. These beds should be watered frequently, as the young date 
seedlings need an abundance of moisture. If properly cared for, the seedlings 
will reach a height of from 12 to 18 inches the first year and can be transplanted 
into the permanent orchard the second year. 



322 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

These seedlings should be set out in rows about 30 feet apart and placed 5 or 
6 feet apart in the row. Ordinarily field crops can be grown between the rows 
until long after the palms come into bearing. After three or four years, when 
the young palms begin to flower, the male trees can be dug up and destroyed, thus 
thinning out about half of the trees Then when the female trees come into fruit, 
those which yield decidedly inferior fruit can also be removed, so that finally 
about one-fourth of the original number of seedlings will be left standing. The 
spaces between the seedlings will be irregular and offshoots can be taken from 
the best sorts and planted where the largest gaps occur. By preventing offshoots 
from growing on the poorer sorts they will yield more fruit and finally can be 
destroyed and replaced by offshoots from some of the better sorts. In this way, 
by degrees, the orchard can be improved without expense for offshoots aside 
from the labor of planting them. 

Rooting Suckers. — Suckers taken off in warm weather and 
watered freely usually take root readily. Care should be taken not to 
let the plants dry. Director Forbes gives these points : Suckers should 
not be taken from the parent tree until they have attained a diameter 
of 5 to 6 inches and a weight of 15 to 20 pounds. Suckers should be 
removed by cutting in and down along the line of cleavage between 
them and the main trunk, with a strong chisel or a flat-pointed bar. If 
possible the cut should be carried down so as to bring away at least 
one or two sound roots. The leaves should be closely pruned and for 
shipment the cut bases had better be protected against drying out by 
layer of wet moss or similar material. In planting, the sucker should 
be set in previously irrigated and well settled soil to the depth of its 
greatest diameter, taking care that the center of the palm is not below 
the irrigating water level. 

For convenience in irrigating, a shallow basin of earth should be 
made about the sucker, in which, to lessen evaporation and the rise of 
alkali, a mulch of fine barnyard litter three or four inches deep should 
be spread. The soil about the newly transplanted suckers should be 
kept constantly wet by frequent irrigations. Suckers should be cut and 
transplanted April to August, inclusive, but not during or approaching 
cool weather. 

Bearing Age of the Date. — There is much difference in the ages 
at which the seedlings have come in fruit in the hands of different 
growers. Fruit has been reported on seedlings six years old and even 
on plants four years from the seed. Such early maturity must not, how- 
ever, be generally expected. 

Blooming of the Date. — The date palm is dioecious, and, its 
staminate (male) and pistillate (female) blooms appearing on different 
trees, it requires the association of the two for perfect fruiting. Grow- 
ing plants from seed, as already stated, leaves the grower in doubt as 
to the sex of his plants until they bloom. Usually one obtains a large 
preponderance of male plants. In propagating from suckers the new 
tree is of the same sex as the parent. It is advised to have about one 
male to twenty female trees. The pollen can be transported long dis- 
tances and maintains its vitality for a long time. 

Artificial fertilization of the bloom of the bearing palm has been 
found of advantage in this State and was probably first practiced by 
J. R. Wolfskin. Though the staminate tree was but a few feet away 
from the pistillate, the male bloom was broken in pieces and hung to 



POLLINATING AND RIPENING DATES 323 

the leaves of the female tree near to the pistillate flowers. It was found 
that the parts of the date cluster which are nearest to the suspended 
male blooms have more perfect fruit than the more distant parts. Other 
California date g^rowers have had similar experience. 

In Winters the bearing date palms bloom in April and May, and the 
fruit ripens in November. 

Ripening the Date. — Dr. A. E. X'inson reports that the Arizona 
I'!xi)criment Station has demonstrated that by pasteurization of the ripe 
fruit, it is freed of the obnoxious insects that naturally infest the date. 
The heat drives the small beetles from their shelter beneath the skins 
and they drop to the bottom of the heater where they die. In pasteuriz- 
ing, the temperature is raised sufficiently to destroy all insect eggs and 
at the same time to improve the keeping quality of the fresh fruit by 
checking fermentation. The date, heated after it has been ripened at 
natural temperatures, becomes more palatable than the raw material 
and does not cloy the appetite so quickly. These improvements alone 
have greatly extended the possibilities of marketing the fresh fruit and 
of its becoming a staple among the people of this country. 

Beauty of the Date Palm. — The date palm in fruit is a beautiful 
sight. The glauceous green pinnate leaves arch outward. Between 
two of these emerge the bright orange-yellow polished fruit stalks, 
which divide into a spray of slender bright yellow stems a foot or so in 
length ; and thickly set upon these in clusters are the various colored 
fruits covered with a rich bloom. It is a sight not easily forgotten by 
a lover of nature, and especially by one reared in a northern zone, the 
characteristic vegetation of which is so different. 



CHAPTER XXX 
THE FIG 

The fig is, perhaps, the grandest fruit tree of CaHfornia. Its majes- 
tic size and its symmetry make it a crowning feature of the landscape, 
and its dense foliage renders the wide space embowered by it a harbor 
of refuge from mid-summer heat, both for idlers and for the indus- 
trious. On adjacent farms in Pleasant's Valley, Solano County, there 
are large fig groves ; one serves as a shelter for the packers of fruit 
from the contiguous orchard, and the other incloses and shades a cro- 
quet ground. Measurements of large trees are abundant, for old trees 
are numerous in the interior of the State, both in the valley and on the 
slopes of the Sierra foothills. At Knight's Ferry, in Stanislaus County, 
there is a fig tree sixty feet in height, with branches of such length as 
to shade a circle seventy feet in diameter. The trunk at the base is 
eleven feet around, and nine feet at a distance of three feet from the 
ground. A little higher the trunk divides into seven or eight large 
branches, each of which is nearly five feet in circumference. At thirty 
feet from the ground the limbs are seven and eight inches through. 
The largest grove is in the neighborhood of Knight's Ferry, and con- 
sists of fifteen massive black fig trees, which, though set sixty feet apart, 
mingle their branches overhead and form a network through which, in 
the summer, hardly a beam of light can pass. 

Such groves are frequently seen in the older settled parts of the 
State. Perhaps the most interesting single fig tree is that on Rancho 
Chico, quite near the residence of General Bidwell. It was planted in 
1856, and has attained a marvelous growth. One foot above the ground 
the trunk measures eleven feet in circumference ; the wide-spreading 
branches have been trained toward the ground and, taking root there, 
banyan-like, they now form a wonderful enclosure over one hundred 
and fifty feet in diameter, the tree is loaded every year. 

The crop on these large trees is proportionate to their size and, 
entering their area in the morning during the ripening season, one can 
scarcely step without crushing figs, though the fruit may be gathered up 
each day and placed in the sun for drying. 



REGIONS SUITED FOR THE FIG 

Though there are still many fine points to be determined as to wdiat 
situations and conditions favor the production of the very finest figs, and 
there are indications that there is possibly much difference, it may be 
truly said that a very small part of the State is really unsuited to its 
growth. If one shuns the immediate coast of the upper part of the 
State, where the summer temperature is too low for successful ripening, 
and keeps below the altitude of the mountains where winter killing of 
the tree is possible, he can grow figs almost anywhere. 

324 



SITUATIONS AND SOILS FOR THE FIG 325 

Selections of varieties adapted to particular situations has much to 
do with the success of the fig. as with other fruits, and, therefore, a 
broad statement of adaptability must be received with such an under- 
standing-. The intrusion of the coast influences borne eastward by the 
winds of summer, as described in Chapter I, gives a night temperature 
too low for ripening of some varieties, which turn sour upon the trees. 
Present indications are that the finest dried figs, having the thinnest 
skin and the nearest approach generally to the fig of Smyrna, the com- 
mercial standard for dried figs, will be produced in the drier portions 
of the valleys and foothills. Even in Southern California fig-souring is 
quite prevalent, and selection of locations must be circumspectly made. 
More time is requisite for the final demonstration of these matters, 
although years have already been devoted to the problem. 



SOILS FOR THE FIG 

As it must be left with the future to determine the mooted point as 
to the influence of special situations upon the bearing of the fig, and 
the more minute characteristics of the fruit, so more experience is 
needed to deconstrate the comparative efifects of different soils. It 
might seem, from the fact of the age of our trees in diflferent parts of 
the State, that time enough had elapsed to determine these points, but 
it must be remembered that all our oldest trees are of the very hardy 
variety found at the missions, and conclusions drawn from them as to 
all varieties are unsafe. 

The fig will thrive in any soil that one would think of selecting for 
any of our common orchard trees, and, in fact, the fig succeeds on a 
wider range of soils than any one of them. One is safe in planting figs 
for family use, or for marketing, wherever the summer temperature is 
high enough to ripen the fruit well, and the winter temperature high 
enough to preserve the life of the tree. This applies merely to the 
successful growth of the fig ; to secure ripening at a time when the fruit 
can be profitably sold for table use, is another question. 

The selection of soils especially suitable to the production of the 
best figs for drying involves more considerations than rule in the growth 
of table fruit. For drying, the fig should attain a good size, but should 
not contain excess of moisture. In some parts of the State the first 
crop of figs in the season has been found unfit for drying. The second, 
and, in some localities, the third crop, appearing later in the season, 
when the moisture supply of the soil is reduced, dry well. This condi- 
tion of the first crop is, however, aflfected by local conditions, for there 
are places in the Sierra foothills where the soil moisture has to be re- 
plenished early in the season by irrigation to prevent even the first crop 
from falling prematurely, and subsequent irrigation brings to perfec- 
tion the second and third crops. The fig tree needs plenty of moisture 
in the soil, but not too much. As with other fruits, if the soil does not 
retain the needed amount naturally, it must be supplied by irrigation 
wisely administered. 



326- CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

PROPAGATION OF THE FIG 

The fig grows very rapidly from cuttings, and this is the chief 
method of propagation. Cuttings should be made while the tree is fully 
dormant, in the winter, of well-matured wood of the previous season's 
growth, giving preference to the stocky, short- jointed shoots, and mak- 
ing the cuttings about six to eight inches in length. The cut at the 
lower end should be made at the joint, or where solid wood is found. 
The planting and care of the cutting is essentially the same as of vine 
cuttings, already described. If well made and cared for, a very satis- 
factory growth is made the first season, and the trees are ready for 
planting out in permanent place the following season. 

Single Bud Cuttings. — If one desires to multiply a new variety 
very rapidly single eye cuttings will make plants. This is, also, analo- 
gous to single-eye grape cuttings, as already described. 

Budding the Fig. — The foregoing means enable one to propa- 
gate a fig so rapidly that recourse is not had to budding, as in propa- 
gating other trees ; still, budding is feasible, either on small plants or 
on young shoots of old trees which it is desired to bud over. 

The fig may be budded by the common shield method, as used for 
ordinary fruit trees, as described in Chapter IX, but owing to the 
tendency of the fig bark to shrink in drying, the bud should be closely 
bound in with a narrow waxed band, to exclude the air. As the bark 
is thick, it is often desirable to cut out a little of the edges closest to the 
bud when in place. 

Another method of budding the fig is by annular or "ring budding," 
a method also relied upon with the walnut and chestnut. Annular 
budding is done in the fall. A circular ring of bark is taken oflf from 
the stock by the aid of a budding knife, by running two circular cuts 
around the stock, and a longitudinal one between the two circular cuts ; 
the ring of bark taken oflf must be at least one inch wide, and from that 
up to two inches. A like ring of bark is taken off in the same manner 
from the scion of the variety to be budded in, and from a branch of the 
year, or preceding one, well in sap, and having about the same diameter 
as the stock. The ring should have on its one or two buds. It must fit 
exactly the space prepared on the stock, and more particularly at the 
lower circular cut, so that both barks will exactly unite at that point. 
When the ring is too long, a little bit of it might be cut off with a very 
sharp knife till it fits well ; if the ring is too large for the stock, a longi- 
tudinal strip would be cut out, and if too narrow, such a strip, if with 
a bud on so much the better, will have to be used to fill up the empty 
space. One must be vary careful while drawing the knife around the 
stock not to go too deep into the wood to injure the cambium layer, or 
to weaken the stock. Tie a bandage pretty firmly over the whole. After 
two or three weeks the bandage has to be taken off, and, in the ensuing 
spring, the top of the stock or limb is cut down three inches above the 
budding. 

Another way of working such trees is by "whistle budding," which 
is done in the spring, when the sap is well up. The stock and the scion 
must be both of the same size and well in sap. The top of the stock 



nunniNG and c.rai- iinc. thk fk; .•>_/ 

is cut down to several inches from the ground ; a circular ring of bark 
is then taken off. and a corresponding ring from the scion, but without 
a longitudinal cut, is put in its place. In inserting it care should be 
taken that the top of the stock, which is to receive the ring from the 
scion, be very smooth, and the latter is then easily pushed down around 
it and bandaged. In the case of the fig, it is especially desirable to use 
the latter method when the sap is up, because if the top of the stock is 
not removed, the exudation from above sours around the bud and pre- 
vents the union of stock and bud. 

To prepare an old tree for budding over, the limbs may be cut back 
in February to within two to six feet of the trunk, covering the ends 
with paint or grafting wax. Allow two shoots to start near the end of 
each of these amputated limbs, and rub off all other shoots. But the 
shoots when they attain the thickness of one's finger, taking green buds 
from the growth it is desired to introduce, or let them grow and bud in 
the fall, whichever is most convenient ; or bud in the growing shoot, and 
rebud in the fall where buds have failed. 

Grafting the Fig. — The fig can be grafted by the cleft-graft 
method, as described in Chapter IX, but the cleft should be made to one 
side of the stub and not through the central pith. Especial care must 
be taken in excluding the air. Fill the cleft between the scions with 
warm wax, which will run in and fill the cavity. Then bind the stock 
with wax bands, taking the greatest care to cover the exposed wood 
surface, the cut end of the bark (which in the fig is very prone to shrink 
and draw back), and as far down the stock as the bark has been split. 

Cut the shield from a limb of about Y^ inch in diameter, length of shield about 
XVi inches, its thickness from y% to J4 inch, and its bud near the middle of the 
shield. Do not remove the vvocd from behind the bud. Make a cut in the stock, 
through the bark and into the wood, its length and width a little greater than 
those of the shield. Insert the shield into the cut, so that the inner bark of tlie 
top of the shield and cut will coincide, so that one side of the shield and cut — and 
both sides, if practicable — will coincide. Place the flap of the cut over the sliieid 
(removing a part of the flap so the bud will not be covered), and fasten flap, 
shield and stock together very firmly with twine, and protect them with paper 
tied around them. They may be grafted in that mode, whenever dormant buds 
are found, for the shields. Twenty-four shields were inserted at several times, 
during one spring, and there was only one failure. 

A method of bark grafting applied to the fig by George C. Roeding 
of Fresno and approved by him after several years of successful ex- 
perience, affords an excellent way of grafting over large trees. It does 
away with splitting the stock and therefore hastens the barking-over 
of an amputation. The branches to be grafted are cut off within 18 to 
24 inches from the point of divergence from the main body of the 
tree, allowing at least two branches to remain, one of which should be 
on the southwest, if possible, so that the grafts will be protected from 
the afternoon sun. 

After having sawed off the branches, the stumps neatly smoothed 
over with a sharp knife, so as to leave a clean, smooth surface, par- 
ticularly along the edge, two, four or six scions should be placed on 
tach stock, the number, of course, being regulated by the size of the 
stump. Cut out a V-shaped piece of bark. The distance from the top 
of the stock to the point of the V should be about 1 '4 inches. 



328 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Another method is to make sHghtly outward and downward cuts 
into the stub with a sharp knife, so as not to cause a spHt, but rather 
deep, clean cuts, into which the wedge-shaped scions are firmly pushed 
and a cord wound around the stub to hold all strongly in place before 
waxing thoroughly. This form of grafting will be shown in the chap- 
ter on the walnut, for it is very successfully used on that tree also. 

The form of side-graft with a saw cut as described in the chapter 
on the peach is also available. A form of bud-graft, that is, budding 
with a large shield into old bark, is also successful. Judge Rhodes of 
San Jose describes his method, both with the olive and the fig, in this 
way: 

Select a scion of the proper size, never be smaller than an ordinary 
lead pencil. As a rule scions from two-year-old wood, with very little 
pith and with a diameter of about ^ inch, will give the best results. 
The scions should have a sloping cut at the lower end, with the bevel 
all on one side and not like a wedge. The bevel should be as long or 
a little longer than the V-shaped opening in the stock and should fit 
snugly into this opening, so that the bark on both edges of the scion 
touches the bark of the stock. After the scions are placed, wrap tightly 
with five or six-ply cotton twine, and cover the wounds as well as the 
stub with liquid grafting wax. Wax the top of the scion to prevent 
drying out. If waxed cloth is used it must be removed before the 
warm weather sets in or the bark will be smothered and will die. After 
the scions have become well united, which takes from two to three 
months, the strings should be cut. This method of grafting can not be 
made successfully until the sap begins to flow, say from the latter part 
of February to the first of April. The scions should never be more 
than four inches long. 

Seedling Figs. — Figs are readily grown from the imported fig 
of commerce. Dr. Gustav Risen of San Francisco, our leading writer 
on the fig, gives the following explicit directions for growing the fig 
from seed : 

Cut open imported Smyrna figs ; wash out the seeds in warm water, those 
that float are empty and worthless ; those that sink are generally fertile. Sow 
these in shallow boxes of sand and loam mixed, and place in a frame under 
glass. In three weeks they will be up and must be very sparingly watered. Set 
out next season in nursery row. In three years from the seed such plants will 
be found to bear. 

The tendency of the plants grown from Smyrna figs is to revert to 
the wild type, and there is a small chance of securing good varieties. 



PLANTING AND PRUNING THE FIG 

The chief point to observe in planting the fig trees is to get them 
far enough apart, because of the great spread of branches which they 
attain. Of course they may be planted twenty feet apart if the owner 
intends to remove alternate rows, but to plant at forty feet, or even 
farther apart, with other fruit trees or vines between, on the plan of 
alternate or double squares, described in Chapter X, would be the best 







Plate XIV— Bearing of the young date palm in California. 
(See page 319.) 



PLANTING AND PRUNING THE FIG 329 

way to lay out a fig; orchard — the intermediate growths to be removed 
as the fijT^s require more room. 

\'ery handsome effects are produced by planting the figs along 
avenues to inclose orchards of other fruits. Fig trees are grand for 
shade around buildings, and wild or Capri figs are desirable to plant in 
this way for a purpose which will be mentioned later. 

In transplanting fig trees e.xtra care must be taken to keep the roots 
from drying. After planting, the stem must be diligently guarded from 
sunburn, to which it is liable in the warmer parts of the State. 

Pruning the Fig. — The fig requires very little pruning after its 
shape is outlined. There is difference of opinion and practice as to the 
height at which the head should be formed ; some head nearly as low as 
already advised for common orchard trees ; others, having in mind the 
immense thickness attained by the limbs, and their disposition to droop, 
head as high as four to six feet, which is the better way to proceed 
when the trees are wide-spaced and expected to attain large size. 

In shaping the tree, branches should be brought out at a distance 
apart on the stem, so that there may be room for their expansion with- 
out crowding each other, and care should be taken not to leave too many 
main limbs. Three limbs, well placed around the stem, are enough. The 
branches putting out on the under side of these limbs should be sup- 
pressed, and those growing upright, or obliquely upright, retained. As 
the fig has pithy shoots it is very desirable to cover all cuts with paint 
or wax. After getting the general shape of the tree fixed, there is little 
need of pruning except to remove defective branches or those which 
cross and interfere with each other and to prevent the interior of the 
tree from becoming too dense. It is better to remove branches entirely 
than to shorten them ; or, in shortening, always cut to a strong lateral. 
Stubs left at pruning are very undesirable in the fig. 

Cultivation. — Young fig orchards are cultivated as are other 
fruit areas. Old trees which completely shade the ground are usually 
left to themselves, without cultivation, except cutting out weeds. Irri- 
gation is governed by local conditions, as already stated. In starting 
the orchard it is exceedingly important that the young trees should 
not be allowed to suffer from drying out of the soil. 

Bearing Age of the Fig. — The fig often, and, perhaps, usually, 
begins its bearing very early, in the most favorable situations in this 
State. Some fruit is often had the second year, and a crop worth 
handling the third year. Still, it is wiser not to calculate definitely 
ujjon such returns, for four or five years sometimes pass without a 
satisfactory crop. We have, also, instances of "barren fig trees." which 
persist in "dropping their untimely figs," year after year, during their 
youth. How much of this is due to variety, and how much to locality, 
is not definitely known, but successful fruiting has been secured by 
grafting over barren trees, using scions from bearing trees growing 
adjacent to them. This has no relation to the subject which will be 
next discussed. 



330 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

CAPRIFICATION* 

Caprification consists in suspending- the fruit of the wild or Capri 
fig in the branches of the tree of improved variety, that the pollen may 
be carried by an insect from the former to the later. Until the present 
decade in California has never been able to produce dried figs equal to 
the fig of commerce or the Smyrna fig. This was, at first, thought 
to be due to lack of the Smyrna variety. After painstaking efifort this 
variety was introduced. Trees grew readily from thg cuttings ; fruit 
appeared upon them and dropped before maturity. Doubt then arose 
as to whether importers had not been deceived, and other efforts were 
made which resulted in other importations. These also cast to the 
ground immature figs. Discussion turned then upon the fact of caprifi- 
cation — the necessity of having the fruit of the Capri or wild fig 
adjacent to the fruit of the Smyrna fig so that insects from the Capri 
might visit the fruit of the improved variety and pollinate its inclosed 
flowers, which, appearing upon the inner wall of an almost closed 
cavity, could not be reached by ordinary visiting insects. The wild 
tree had already been introduced and were freely growing near the 
others, but this fact availed nothing — the figs fell just the same from 
the Smyrna trees. In 1890 Mr. George C. Roeding, of Fresno, essayed 
to demonstrate the fact that the lack of the pollination was the secret 
of failure, and he succeeded in introducing the Capri pollen into the 
eye of the Smyrna fig, and secured thereby the retention of such 
pollinated figs upon the trees, and when ripened and dried these had 
the Smyrna character. The demonstration was complete that Cali- 
fornia could not grow Smyrna figs without the pollinating agency 
found to be essential to success in Smyrna. This agent is a minute 
wasp called the blastophaga — an insect so minute that it can make its 
way through the mesh of ordinary cheese-cloth and can enter the almost 
closed eye of the young Fig — so minute that a magnifying glass is 
necessary to give one any clear idea of its outline. For years constant 
efifort has been made by various parties to secure the introduction of 
this insect. Urgent appeals were made to the United States Department 
of Agriculture, after private undertakings failed, to secure the insect 
alive or otherwise in form for permanent residence. In April. 1899, 
the feat was accoinplished, the blastophagas being received from Algiers 
as collected and forwarded by W. T. Swingle to Mr. Roeding. Their 
offspring appeared in large numbers during the summer and fall of 
the same year. On the basis of this achievement the commercial 
production of a true Smyrna fig in California began and has rapidly 
developed. Mr. Roeding gave his product the musical patronymic 
"Calimyrna," which now adheres also the the variety from which it 
is produced. 

*In a general treatise like this only a passing reference can be made of this subject, 
which is perhaps the most interesting in the whole realm of entomo-horticulture. The fi? 
grower should secure the following monographs: "Smyrna Fig Culture in the United States." 
by L. O. Howard. Year Book of U. S. Dept. of Agr. for 1900; "The Fig— its History, 
Culture and Curing," by Gustav Eisen, Bulletin No. 9, Div. of Pomology, U. S. Dept. of 
Agr., 1901; "The Smyrna Fig at Home and Abroad," by George C. Roeding, Fresno, Cal., 
1903; "Some Points in the History of Caprification in the Life History of the Fig," by 
W. T. Swingle: Report of Riverside Fruit Growers' Convention. 1908: "The Latest develop- 
ment in Fig Culture," by G. P. Rixford, Pacific Rural Press, December 18 and 25, 1909: 
also December 17, 1910, and July 13, 1912. The same journal has an excellent discussion of 
caprification methods in its issue of January 10, 1913. 



VARIETIES OF THE FIG 331 

It is an interestin<T fact that after this strenuous work was success- 
fully accomplisiied it was ascertained that the fig wasp had really 
reached California without assistance before 1880 and has been estab- 
lished in San Joaquin county since that remote date. 

To avail himself of the benefits of caprification, every grower 
of varieties which require it must also grow suitable Capri figs and 
establish the insect in them. California nurserymen supply these and 
the insects also when the trees are of suitable age to receive them. 

FOES OF THE FIG 

The fig is freer from insect pests than other fruit trees, and yet it 
is a mistake to consider it wholly free. The writer has seen the leaves 
well covered with a lecantum scale and has found a moth larva boring 
in the pith of the young shoots ; still, practically, the fig tree in Cali- 
fornia has not yet suflFered from insects. 

The gophers have a pronounced appetite for fig roots, and their 
presence should be carefully watched for. Swine have a liking for fig 
bark. The trees of the grand grove planted at Hock Farm, on the 
Feather River, by General Sutter, were completely girdled from the 
ground as high as a pig could reach by standing on its hind legs. 
Figs make good food for hogs, and plantations have been made with 
this in view, but if the hogs are to be harvesters, it will be well to 
protect the stems of the trees from them. 

VARIETIES OF THE FIG 

The fig presents what may be termed an aggravated example of 
the confused nomenclature which pervades California fruits. Dr. Eisen 
has made a commendable eflfort to bring order out of chaos by a study 
of foreign records and locally-grown fruit, and has published a cata- 
logue of varieties chiefly grown in California, with descriptions of each 
in Bulletin 5 of the Division of Pomology of the U. S. Department of 
Agriculture.* The following enumeration is largely restricted to 
varieties which have been commercially propagated : 

Adriatic. — Size, medium, roundish; neck medium; stalk short; ribs obscure; 
eye open, with red iris ; skin very thin, greenish in the shade, yellowish in the 
sun ; pulp bright strawberry red or white, with violet streaks in the meat ; varies 
in quality according to location. Very productive and often very profitable as 
dried product. Apt to sour if weather is dark or showery during ripening. This 
variety is not identical with that known in Italy as Adriatic. 

Agen. — Medium size, roundish ; skin bright green, cracking longitudinally 
when ripe, showing white bands ; flesh deep red, very rich ; a good bearer, but 
very late, requiring a long hot season. 

Angelique ; syn. Angelica. — Medium, pyriform; ribs, prominent; yellowish 
white ; pulp white, with rose-colored center ; leaves five-lobed. A very good 
variety in some of the coast vallevs. 



•A much fuller discussion of fig varieties is to be found in Dr. Eisen's Bulletin 9, 
already cited. Many notes are made of the fruiting in the late John Rock's collection on the 
grounds of the California Nursery Co., at Niles, Alameda County, of many introduced varieties 
which have not been commercially propagated in California. 



332 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

Bardajic. — "Very large, obovate, pyriform, long neck and stalk, skin very 
thin, grayish green; pulp rich crimson, fine table fig and largest of Smyrna 
class." — Roeding. 

Belloma. — Large, pyriform, dark purple, red flesh, fine flavor when dried. 

Black Bulletin Smyrna. — Large, obtuse, pyriform, short neck, long stalk, light 
purple, flesh pink, luscious. 

Black Smyrna. — Small, globular, short stem, pulp dark amber, good for 
home use. 

Bourjassotte, White; syn. Barnissotte, White. — Medium, round and somewhat 
flattened, eye large, sunk ; skin waxy, green ; pulp bright red. A very fine fig. 
Tree very large. 

Brown Turkey. — Large, turbinate, pyriform, with hardly distinct neck; stalk 
short; apex flattened; ribs few; slightly elevated; eye medium, slightly open, 
scales large; skin smooth, greenish to violet-brown in sun, with darker ribs; 
pulp dark rosy red, quahty good, and tree a good bearer. Brunswick is fre- 
quently confounded with this fig. A distinct variety is grown in Vacaville as 
Brown Turkey, which is named by Dr. Eisen "Warren." 

Brunswick. — Very large, pyriform, with swollen cheeks, one of which is 
larger than the other; apex very obtuse; neck and stalk very short; ribs distinct; 
but not much elevated ; ej'e medium, open ; skin pale amlaer, with violet tint ; 
pulp amber. An early, large ng, but lacking flavor. Very common ; requires 
rich, moist soil. 

Celeste, White. — Very small, amber ; suitable for preserves. 

Celeste, Blue; syn. Violette. — Small, ovate, turbinate ; ribs few, but distinct, 
especially near apex ; eye raised, rough ; color dark violet amber, without red- 
dish blush ; bloom confined to the neck ; skin thin ; pulo deep rose ; meat amber, 
sweet, but lacking in flavor. 

Checker Injur. — "Roundish, oblate, short neck, flesh reddish, skin greenish 
yellow, very thin, dries well." — Roeding. 

Col. de Signora Bianco. — Medium sized, pyriform; long ribbed neck; skin 
green, changing to yellow ; flesh deep red, very rich and luscious a strong grower ; 
late, suited for a warm region. 

Dauphine. — Large, round turbinate, purple with blue bloom; flesh amber. 

Doree. — Medium, oblong, bright yellow, flesh rose-color. 

Dottato. — Medium ovate, pyriform; neck well set; stalk very short or none; 
ribs low ; skin smooth ; eve medium ; skin thin, yellowish green, meat white ; 
pulp yellowish amber, sometimes with violet flush. One of the best figs for 
drying; tree a strong grower, requiring moist, rich soil. Lately introduced into 
California. 

Draf) d'Or. — Large, pyriform, with very low neck and stalk; ribs elevated; 
apex olDtuse and concave ; color light violet-reddish amber, not dark ; pulp rosy 
red. A fig of very fine quality; especially useful for confections and crystalizing ; 
not identical with Brunswick. 

Du Roi. — Above medium; round, pyriform; stalk A'ery short; eye large or 
variable, with scales standing out; skin smooth, pale bluish green; pulp amber, 
with rosy streaks and exceedingly minute seeds. Related to Marseillaise and 
Athens, and one of the very best figs in California for drying. 

Early Violet. — Small to very small, round turbinate; neck distinct but short; 
stalk medium to long; ribs distinct, elevated; skin rough; violet-brown, with 
thin pearl-colored bloom ; pulp red. This variety bears almost continuously and 
is preferable to the Tschias and Celeste. 

Genoa, White. — Above medium, pyriform; neck small; stalk short; ribs indis- 
tinct ; skin downy ; eye very small ; skin pale olive-green ; pulp pale rose. One 
of the better figs, quite distinct from Marseillaise. 

Gentile. — Very large ; ovate pyriform ; neck short but distinct ; stalk very 
short; skin uneven, with ridges; eye very large, open, with projecting scales; 
color greenish yellow, spotted with white ; pulp amber, streaked with rose ; seeds 



FIG VARIETIES GROWN IN CALIFORNIA 333 

few but very large. Only the first crop of this variety ripens. It is of the San 
Pedro tribe. One of the best early figs. 

Grosse Grisc Bifcrc. — Medium ovate pyriform; neck very short; stalk short; 
ribs distinct; eye small; skin downy, dark violet amber, pale olive in shade; the 
bloom is separate by a distinct line from the apex; pulp deep red. A tender, 
good fig. 

Hirtu du Japan. — Medium size, roundish with long stalks ; skin very dark ; 
flesh opaline ; quality best ; very prolific. 

Ischia, Black. — Small; neck short; stalk medium; skin smooth; color dark 
violet black, greenish around the apex ; neck dark ; eye medium, open ; bloom 
thin, dark blue; pulp red. Of fair quality but small size. 

Ischia, White. — Size below medium, round, with small neck ; stalk very short ; 
eye open ; skin smooth, bluish green, with brown tlush, pulp rosy red. Common 
in California. 

Kassaba. — "Medium to large, globular, flattened, short neck and stalk, pale 
green, pulp reddish, very sweet, dries well. Tree handsomest of Smyrna varieties." 
— Rocding. 

Ladaro. — Very large, oblong, pale yellow, brown cheek, flesh deep red, rich 
and sugary. 

Magdalen (Madeleine). — Below medium, round; ribs distinct, rough, dis- 
appearing around the eye ; stalk longer than the fig, eye open, large ; skin 
greenish yellow ; pulp amber white. A very delicious fig, superior to the Ischias 
and Celeste. Not synonymous with Angelique. 

Marseillaise, Long. — Large, longer than wide; skin thick, with brownish 
shade ; pulp dull red. Requires moist soils. A fair fig, which dries well. Not 
related to either Black or White Marseillaise. 

Marseillaise, White. — Medium ovate, pyriform; neck short; stalk medium; 
ribs numerous and distinct; apex flattened; eye large, open; skin downy, pale 
yellowish green, mottled with white ; pulp amber, with a few large seeds. One 
of the best figs for drying. Requires sandy, rich soil. 

Mission, Black. — Medium to large, turbinate; neck long; stalk short; ribs 
distinct; eye prominent, open; skin rough, deep mahogany violet, with red 
flush; pulp not fine, red but not bright or brownish amber; sweet, but not high- 
flavored; common in the Southern States, California and Mexico. The oldest 
fig in this country. Very regular and prolific in bearing, and free from souring 
while sun drying. 

Monaco Bianco; syn. White Monaco. — Large, rounded, turbinate; flattened, 
neck small but very distinct ; ribs numerous ; eye very open ; skin dark bluish 
green, with thin bloom ; pulp dark-red rose. A most excellent fig for table, one 
of the best in California. 

Mouissouna. — Globular, turbinate, flattened, dark violet, blue bloom, pulp red, 
soft and sweet. 

Pacific White. — An unknown variety found growing on a farm in Placer 
county. Medium size, fine grained, very sweet, dries well, but the skin is thicker 
and more tough than the imported fig. That and its small size are the only 
objections to it. It is quite widely distributed in Southern California. 

Pastiliere. — Large, 3 inches by IV2; elongated, pyriform, with long neck; stalk 
short ; eye closed, surrounded by an elevated iris ; skin rough, hairy, with blue 
bloom ; pulp red. Fine for preserves. 

Ronde Noire. — Large, round, but, irregular; neck distinct, short; eye small; 
skin smooth, waxy, dark violet brown ; pulp amber. Greatly to be recommended 
as a table fig. Is not related to Black Ischia or Osborn Prolific. 

Ronde Violctte Haiive. — Large, globular, with no neck ; glossy green, shaded 
violet brown; eye large; flesh amber, surrounding rose center. 

Rose Blanche. — Large, roundish, flattened ; long stalk ; brown or white ground ; 
flesh bright red. Suitable for table and drying. 

Royal Vineyard. — Medium, pyriform, long, slender neck ; reddish brown, blue 
bloom ; eye large, open ; flesh bright red. 



334 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

San Pedro, White; syn. Brebas. — Very large, round, flattened at apex; stalk 
and neck short; eye open; skin thick, tender, of a bright yellow color or greenish 
in the shade, without bloom ; pulp amber. A remarkable and handsome fig. 
Only the first crop matures without caprification. Suited only for table use. 
Requires moist, rich soil. 

San Pedro, Black. — Very large, elongated ovate, with no stalk, but with well- 
set neck; skin smooth, violet black with green neck, pulp red, coppery, tinted 
violet. For table use. The largest fig known. 

Smyrna (Fig of Commerce, Drying Fig of Smyrna, Calimyrna). — Of several 
attempts to secure the true Smyrna fig, or the variety which produces the well- 
known Smyrna fig of commerce, that made by the San Francisco Bulletin, and 
managed by G. P. Rixford, has achieved most prominence, and is now generally 
conceded to have proved successful. Fourteen liiousand cuttings were obtained 
through United States Consul E. J. Smithers, in 1882, and a large part of these 
were distributed throughout the State. A later direct importation of fig cuttings 
from Smyrna was made by the Fancher Creek Nursery, of Fresno. These trees 
have already borne fruit, as has been described in a preceding paragraph on 
caprification. In the summer of 1890 cuttings imported from Smyrna by the 
United States Department of Agriculture were sent to several parties in this 
State. As the fig insect has fully established itself, as described on a previous 
page, this variety will establish itself as the leading drying fig, here as a Smyrna, 
and a very important industry will be established upon it. Other figs previously 
called Smyrna in this State are misnamed. 

The Rixford Fig. — There are, however, new varieties of direct Smyrna parent- 
age attracting attention in this State. The planting of Smyrna fig seed by Mr. 
E. W. Maslin, at Loomis, in 1886, has yielded several varieties which Mr. W. T. 
Swinele described in the Pacific Rural Press of February 27, 1909, as of decided 
promise. These new varieties, which might be called self-sealed figs, show a 
drop of pellucid gum completely filling the very narrow mouth of the fruit when 
it matures. As the figs dry and shrivel on the tree and fall to the ground, the 
drop of gum hardens and hermetically seals the mouth. Such figs do not sour, 
since the germs causing fermentation are unable to effect an entrance to the 
pulp within. The skin is pale in color, very thin and tender, often translucent 
and amber colored in the figs that have cured on the ground. The pulp is light 
amber colored, full of fertile seeds, sweet and of excellent flavor. The drop of 
hardened gum that closes the mouth it usually from one-sixteenth to one-eighth 
inch in diameter, sometimes concealed just within the mouth, but usually partly 
protruding outside. 

Vcrdal, Round. — Below medium, round nyriform without stalk or neck; skin 
smooth, waxy, bluish green ; eye closed ; pulp dark, blood red. A small fig, but 
valuable for canning and preserves ; better than the Ischias or Celeste. It does 
well in the Santa Clara Valley, but is inferior in the interior of the State. 

White Endich. — A re-named variety. Medium, golden yellow, pulp white 
tinged with pink; tree prolific and long ripening season. 

Verdal Longue. — Medium, oblong, turbinate; stalk and neck short; eye closed; 
yellow, ribs brownish ; flesh red ; sweet aromatic. 

Zimitza. — Large, pyriform, greenish, yellow amber flesh ; good grower and 
bearer. 

There are many undetermined varieties of the fig grown here 
and there in the State. Some may be finally identified, others may 
be new. Some of them yield an excellent dried fruit and should be 
more carefully experimented with. The outlook for the fig seems to 
rest upon successful caprification, although recently there has been 
increased success in profitable drying of other varieties. 



CHAPTER XXXI 
THE OLIVE AND ITS GROWTH IN CALIFORNIA 

The olive is another of the old mission fruits and though the 
tree and its products have been constantly under discussion since the 
American occupation, and though experimentation has been constant, 
it was not until 1885 that the tide of popular favor turned strongly 
toward the olive. For twelve years thereafter planting proceeded 
with enthusiam amounting almost to infatuation, until the acreage 
in olives ten years ago reached such a figure that even the most 
enthusiastic ceased from further planting, because the future of the 
products of the olive was by no means clear. The competition of olive 
oil with cheaper salad oils worked greatly to the disadvantage of the 
higher-priced article, but as deception is now ruled out by recent pure- 
food legislation, cheaper oils can no longer be sold under the name of 
the olive, and legitimate producers will henceforth be protected. 

The difficulty of producing pickled ripe olives with good keeping 
qualities is also vastly greater than anticipated. In addition to these 
troubles the sterility of the trees in some situations, through frost or 
other agencies, discouraged many growers. It is probable that during 
the first decade of this century the uprooting of trees far exceeded the 
planting and the olive acreage decreased considerably. At the same 
time there was much progress attained in the building and equipment 
of oil mills and pickling establishments, and in mastery of processes 
which yield acceptable products — all of which have favorably influenced 
the demand and price of the fresh fruit. The fact is, the olive was 
boomed in California along spectacular and speculative lines, and the 
industrv had to outlive the mistakes which were made. California will 
produce profitably, good olives and olive products in suitable places and 
through the efforts of masterful men and women who can rise to the 
requirements of production. This view is justified by the experience 
of the last few years. During the year 1913, the price for good pickling 
olives ranged from $140 to $160 per ton, while fancy fruit reached 
$200 and upwards. Such prices were never previously attained and 
it is believed that even one-half of these values would be profitable, if 
the trees were fairly productive. This is the ruling factor in the 
business for olives have proved very shy bearers in many places. Wise 
investments seems to be to enlarge profitable areas by planting under 
conditions demonstrated to be favorable. 

The olive tree has survived a temperature of 14 degrees Fahrenheit 
in California, but the fruit is injured by a slight fall below the 
freezing point. This may render unprofitable the late varieties which 
carry their fruit-ripening into the winter months. 

The olive tree will thrive throughout the larger part of California, 

and it has been shown that it will grow in a soil too dry even for the 

grape-vine, and too rocky for any other fruit tree, but the growth of 

the tree and the bearing of fruit will be proportional to the amounts 

335 



336 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

of plant food and moisture, and it is idle to expect fruit without irri- 
gation if the soil can not hold water enough for the tree. There 
must be moisure enough in the soil to hold the fruit plump 
and smooth. Olives shriveled by drouth will usually become smooth 
again after fall rains, but shriveling, either by drouth or frost, leaves 
the fruit not in the best condition for pickling. 

On foot-hill slopes the trees bear fruit earlier than in the rich valleys, 
although in the latter the trees attain larger growth. Trees in the 
interior bear sooner than on the coast, and ripen their fruit earlier in 
the season. 

The olive tree is now thriving in California in a great variety of 
soils. It is productive, if frosts are not too severe on moist valley 
lands, while on hillsides, even where excavations had to be made 
between boulders, or into disintegrating rock, the tree has exhibited 
thrift and content with the situation. But the conclusion should not be 
drawn that the olive relishes poor soil. It may thrive with loose rocks 
or boulders, but it finds among them the elements it needs including an 
adequate supply of moisture. It is not to be inferred that the olive 
will succeed on sterile soil. 

The olive is chiefly grown with clean summer cultivation. Growing 
the tree in irrigated alfalfa, as discussed in Chapter XIV is objection- 
able because of the danger of delaying the ripening of the fruit and 
bringing it farther into the rainy season, which is a very great dis- 
advantage. 

Although the relations of soils to the qualities of oil have been 
investigated by the University of California Experiment Station and 
some interesting results published, we have not had experience enough 
in this State to demonstrate the influence of soils on the quality of 
the oil, but trade results have shown that good oil has been made from 
fruit grown on some of our best valley fruit soils, deep and naturally 
well drained, as well as from fruit grown upon drier uplands, and the 
production on deeper, richer lands is much larger. 



PROPAGATION OF THE OLIVE 

Olives are propagated from seed, and from cuttings of various 
kinds and sizes. The growth from seed is seldom practised in this 
State, because growth from cuttings is easy, and furnishes the variety 
desired without grafting. 

Growing Olives from Seed. — The olives should not be planted 
with the pulp, but cleaned of this either by letting them rot in a pile 
or by putting them into an alkaline solution to cut the oil. A simple 
way to hasten germination is to break the pits, taking care not to 
hurt the germ. An instrument similar to the nut cracker has been 
invented in France which is said to work well. When the kernels 
are deprived of their shell, they may be kept moist in a compost, or 
mixture of cow-dung and sandy soil, and sow thickly in the month 
of April. If it is thought to be too much work to take the kernels out 
of the pits, they must be soaked for twenty-four hours in a solution 



OLIVES FROM SEEDS AND CUTTINGS 337 

of one-half pound of concentrated lye to the gallon of water. Most 
of the seeds sprout the first year. IManting the naked kernels gives 
the quickest result. Without using this artificial means some of the 
seeds may remain dormant at least for two years. Clipping the tip 
of the shell, so as to open a small aperture so that moisture can enter 
readily, will often cause nine-tenths of the seed to grow within three 
months. 

G. P. Hall, of San Diego, gives the following hints for those who 
desire to experiment with seedling olives : 

After the pulp has all been taken off with lye water (in order to remove all 
the oil and to roughen the shell), the seed is washed in clean water and then 
kept in moist sand till planting time, which is in February and March. They 
will not all germinate the first year, so it is best to preserve the seed-bed. 
Some assist the germination by cracking the pits in an iron vise; one turn of 
the screw generally splits the shell. Leave the pit in the cracked shell when 
you plant in the prepared seed-bed. Some use boxes perforated to insure drain- 
age ; the boxes are filled to within three inches of the top with good sandy loam, 
then the kernels, cracked or otherwise, are spread over the top and an inch or 
more of sand covers the whole, which must be kept constantly moist. The 
cracking of the kernels greatly accelerates the germination, and a person can 
prepare 600 or more seed in a day. Take seed from best trees and avoid 
dwarfs of any kind. Use any good kinds of either pickling or oil olives as you 
may desire. 

Large Cuttings. — There are two chief methods of propagating 
the olive from cuttings now practised in California. One uses well- 
matured wood, and the other young wood which has just passed out 
of the herbaceous state. Practice with hard wood proceeds by taking 
cuttings of sound wood about a foot long and one-half to one inch 
in diameter, and rooting them as already described for vine cuttings, 
in Chapter XXVI. A fresh cut should be made at the bottom of the 
cutting and if the bark has shriveled at all the cuttings should be 
put in water for a time before planting. These large cuttings sometimes 
remain dormant for a year or more, and recent propagation has been 
largely by the small-cutting method. 

Small Cuttings. — Propagating by small cuttings serves an 
excellent purpose in rapid multiplication of varieties ; it enables the 
grower to handle a large number of plants in a small space, and the 
plants from small cuttings have a symmetrical root system quite 
resembling that from a seed. These cuttings are made from very 
small shoots and both the tips and the lower cuts are used. In the 
engraving the figure on the left is a tip cutting; the next, a cutting 
lower down the shoot. These figures are about natural size, and show 
clearly how the cuttings are made. They are placed closely in boxes 
of sand about four inches deep, rooted under glass or in a lath house, 
and after a few months are potted in small pots, or may be reset farther 
apart in boxes of soil or in the open ground. In January or February, 
the wood seems to be in the best condition in Berkeley, but such condi- 
tion may come at other times, in other parts of the State. From such 
cuttings the trees will -be of good size for planting in penrianent place 
the next year. It is very important to take the small cuttings just 
when the wood is in the right condition, not too soft nor too hard. 



338 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 




Propagating the Olive by small cuttings. 

How to determine this point can not be described ; it must be learned 
by experience. 

Growing Trees from Truncheons. — New varieties secured from 
the south of Europe generally come in the shape of truncheons, which 
are long sticks of hard wood. They may be planted entire, or be 
sawn and split into large cuttings (for olive cuttings, even in firewood 
shape, will grow if properly treated), though better trees come from 
small cuttings. If the truncheons are bedded a few inches below the 
surface in moist, warm soil, shoots will appear which can be worked 
up into small cuttings when they reach the proper condition. 



BUDDING THE OLIVE 

Since the planting of a large area of Redding Picholines and the 
fruit found to be that of a wild or poor seedling olive and not a superior 
named variety, there has been a demand for working over the trees 
into better varieties. Besides, many of the imported varieties have 
proved disappointing and a change to a variety profitable in the region 
is imperative. The method of budding commonly employed with fruit 
trees does not usually yield a high percentage of success with the 
olive, and other ways have been adopted with much better results. 

Budding may be performed at any time of the year when the sap 
flows freely. If done late in the summer, the buds lie dormant through 
*Jie winter. Best results are obtained when the buds are inserted 



TWIG-BUDDING TIIK OLIVE 



339 



early in the spring, as the operation can be i)erforniecl to a much 
better a(Ivantag;c, and the buds will grow to some height before winter. 
When inserted in large orchard trees, or in limbs of large trees, the 
shoots from the inserted buds are allowed to grow until they have 
attained such a size as will justify in the removal of the entire top. 

Twig Budding. — Twig budding is very successful. The bud is 
cut deep into the wood, in order to give the bud as much bark as pos- 
sible. The leaves are partly cut off ; then, with the sharp point of the 
budding knife, the greater part of the wood inside of the bud is 
removed, as shown in the picture. If part of the wood is not removed, 
then the bud can not take, as the wood in it prevents the two barks 
(the inner bark of the bud and the inner bark of the stock) from 
uniting. When the wood has been partly removed from the bud. the 
bud is inserted into the stock, as budding is done in the regular. 





Olive: Twig-Bud as cut. 



Olive: Twig-Bud Inserted. 



ordinary way, and tied tight. A small tip-twig may be used or a longer 
twig, cut back to the lowest bud and part of the foliage cut away, as 
shown in the engraving. At the end of three or four weeks the string 
is removed, and part of the top of the stock is cut back to force the 
bud to start. As the bud grows, the foliage of the stock is gradually 
removed, until the bud is able to take up the entire flow of sap; it is 
then left to grow, and it may be protected by tying to a long stub of 
the branch which may be left for that purpose above the point of 
insertion. When the bud has grown out strongly, what remains of 
the stock above the bud is cut smooth, close to the bud, to allow it to 
heal over. 

Flap-Budding the Olive. — Although the use of a twig with a 
pushing bud is to be commended strongly a dormant bud can be forced 
into activity quite successfully. Mr. C. A. Wetmore describes this 
method : 

Late in the spring, when advancing warmth has set the sap to moving freely, 
observe a tree of the kind you desire to propagate. Notice parts of limbs with 



340 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

vigorous growth and clean bark free from little lateral twigs. Where a leaf 
adheres to such limbs or where one has been and fallen off, there is a small 
bud or eye. Such dormant buds or eyes are lifted from the wood together with a 
small piece of the bark about one-third or half an inch square. On the properly 
selected limbs of the trees you wish to bud into, make three cuts with a knife 
so as to include a space a little longer than the piece of bark to be inserted. 
Two parallel cuts are in line with the limb; one is across the top. Lifting the 
flap of bark thus made carefully with dull side of a blade, the cambium layer of 
the wood will be exposed. Slip in the piece of bark with the dormant bud and 
press it close with the flap made on the limb. Tie the flap firmly to cover the 
whole piece inserted with raffia or strips of cloth or soft twine. At the end of 
one week cut the ligatures and suffer the flap to curl up and dry. If the inser- 
tion has united to the wood, it will remain green and fresh-looking about the 
dormant eye. If this freshness continues after exposure, the bud has taken. 
Then cut with a knife or saw into the limb above the bud to induce the sap 
to force the growth. If any one fails, the limb need not be cut into, but may 
be budded in another place. The following winter, cut off the limb above the 
bud if it has sprouted well, and, as sufficient new wood is made, the old branches 
of the tree may be cut away. 

GRAFTING THE OLIVE 

Grafting is also used in working over both large and small olive 
trees. Good success can sometimes be had with the ordinary method 
of top grafting, as described in Chapter IX, using scions not larger 
than a lead pencil and inserting them in April. The olive can also be 
successfully grafted in the bark according to the method shown in 
Chapter IX. This graft is used for working in the top of the tree, but 
it may also be used at the surface of the ground, covering the cut 
surfaces with earth when the scions are in place. Judge A. L. Rhodes, 
of San Jose, gives the following explicit accoimt of his success with a 
bark graft, as follows : 

The stock, where cut off, may be from half to two and one-half inches in 
diameter ; the scion about one-quarter inch in diameter, the lower end to be 
formed by an oblique cut of about one and one-half inches. Split the bark of 
the top of the stock about one inch, raise the bark at the sides of the split 
slightly, insert the point of the scion between the bark and wood of the stock, 
at the split, and press it down the length of its oblique cut. Fasten it by binding 
twine around both stock and scion, about ten times, very firmly. Apply grafting 
wax to top of stock and scion. 

If the bark of the stock be three or more years old, make two slits in it, 
about one and one-half inches in length, the width between them equaling the 
width of the oblique cut of the scion, raise the bark between the slits, cut off 
about half of it, by a sloping cut, then insert the scion and press it down, and 
bind with twine and apply grafting wax, as above directed. Cotton wrapping 
twine is of sufficient strensrth. 

Stocks the diameter of one inch or more should receive two or more scions. 
Scions gathered a short time before their insertion are the most successful. The 
twine around the stock and scion should not be loosened until it indents the bark 
of the stock. Protect the graft from sun and wind. Wrap paper around stock 
and scion, the paper to extend a few inches above the scion — or place the paper, 
in the form of a bag, over scion and stock — and secure the paper with twine, 
tied around the stock in a slip-knot. 

Bark grafting may be performed at any time when the bark of the stock 
can be readily raised — whenever the bark will "slip." I grafted in that mode in 
each week of April and May and the first of June, and in September. Failures 
not 5 per cent. Twelve scions inserted about the middle of last September are 



TRANSPLANTING OLIVE TREES 341 

all growing. Shield budding is the most successful in the spring. I prefer 
the bark grafting, as the shield buds may not start for months, or even for 
a year. 

Side Graft on Small Wood. — A satisfactory graft can be made 
with an ol)li(|uo cut, as shown in Chapter IX, which is superior to a 
split of the stock, because on a small stock the spilt is apt to continue 
farther than desirable when the scion is pushed in. With the slanting 
cut in the stock the scion can be firmly pushed into place without 
splitting. The union of inner barks of scion and stock must be made 
on one side when the stock is larger than the scion. This graft is tied 
in and waxed, or a waxed band may be used. In working small wood 
at the ground surface, the earth should be drawn up around the graft. 

Grafting on Rooted Cuttings. — Good trees are made by grafting 
in the nursery or rooted Picholine cuttings. Such cuttings are made 
from wood, say, one-half inch in diameter. Using a young scion with 
a starting bud. Such a scion makes a salable tree with one year's 
growth. 

PLANTING THE OLIVE 

There is nothing gained by planting out the olive too early in the 
spring. Both cuttings arid rooted plants will do better if planted after 
the soil becomes well warmed, and after the heavy rains of the winter 
are well over. Of course the time when this condition comes is different 
from year to year, and varies, also, according to locality and situation. 
During the first summer the young plants will need occasional water- 
ing in some situations ; in others, merely mulching, or keeping the 
surface finely stirred, will suffice. 

Olive trees are planted at diflFerentdistances, but the ruling intervals 
are twenty to twenty-five feet. This will allow the trees to bear a 
number of years before they crowd each other ; and then removing 
alternative trees gives ample distance for future growth. But it is 
clearly the part of wisdom to hold the olive to a low growth in order 
that the fruit may be cheaply gathered, and this may be done by 
proper pruning. 

Transplanting Old Olive Trees. — It is often desired to move 
olive trees of considerable size and the method outlined below is, 
applicable to olives and citrus fruits and, in a general way, to all ever- 
green trees : 

After the heavy rains are over and the ground is getting warm — say 
in February — cut back not less than one-half of the top. Trench all 
around the tree to a depth of two or three feet, according to the size 
of the tree ; the inside edge of the trench about two feet from the trunk 
of the tree. At the same time remove top earth down to the roots 
to reduce the weight. This trenching cuts oflf all side roots and gives 
room to get in to handle the ball of earth, which rope up with barley 
sacks under the ropes so as to hold the ball from breaking. When this 
is done well, dig in and under the tree from the bottom of the 
trench so as to cut off the bottom roots. Carefully pull and 
pry the ball to see that it will wobble a little in the hole to 
show that all the roots are cut. The get ropes and sacks under the 



342 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

ball, rig up a derrick and block and tackle and lift the balled tree out 
of the hole, land it on a low truck and haul it to a new hole previously 
made ready, and lower it into place by the same tackle which lifted it. 
Fill in with fine earth and water-settle it to fill all cavities — covering 
with loose earth several inches to keep from drying. Be sure the tree 
has plenty, but not too much, moisture during its first summer in its 
new place. 

Large deciduous trees can be removed when dormant with much 
less labor, but it should be done in the fall-as soon as the soil is deeply 
wet by rains. It should be understood, however, that moving large fruit 
trees, either evergreen or deciduous, is seldom commercially desirable. 



PRUNING THE OLIVE 

Pruning policies as insisted upon in Chapter XII, have direct 
bearing upon the commercial growth of the olive. The development 
of the tree according to principles there laid down is practicable and 
desirable. After proper low form is secured, satisfactory bearing will 
depend upon regular pruning to secure new bearing shoots and 
thinning to prevent the tree from becoming too dense and bushy. The 
olive bears upon wood which grew the preceding year, and upon no 
other. It is just as important, then, to secure a good supply of such 
shoots as it is to secure new bearing wood for the peach, and the ways 
to do it, by cutting back and thinning out, are much the same. Keep 
the tree from running out of reach of a step-ladder ; prevent it from 
becoming a brush-heap, for both these acts are essential to the growth 
of good bearing wood, low down. At the same time it must be remem- 
bered that too severe cutting-back forces the growth of branches which 
form only wood buds and fruiting is postponed. The secret is to 
prune enough to induce plenty of new growth but so that not much 
excessive, non-bearing, new growth results. This is secured by regualar 
and moderate pruning; some growers systematically cutting back the 
new growth one-half to two-thirds. 

Trees which have been allowed to form umbrella-like tops may be 
brought down to business again by cutting back the main limbs and 
making selection from the many new shoots which appear, but by 
proper, regular pruning a tree can be so trained that the removal of 
large limbs is seldom necessary. The times to prune the olive are 
just after the gathering of the fruit or just before new growth starts 
in the Spring. 

Developing the Vase Form. — Explicit suggestions as to the 
development of a low, vase-form tree may be helpful to inexperienced 
growers. The following is from a foreign writer, whose illustrations 
are presented herewith : 

When the young tree has attained some height, it is the practice to cut oflf 
the top, so that the main stem shall be about four and a half feet in rich soil, 
or three feet in poor soil or in locations exposed to strong winds. Six or eight 
branches are left to form the head. The process of shaping the tree then pro- 
ceeds, as shown in the engravings. Fig. 1 shows the young tree to be cut at the 



Ol.IVF, PRUNING ILLUSTRATED 



343 








Fig. 1. 



Fig. 4. 




Fig. 2. 



Fig. 3. 



344 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

point marked by the dotted line C. Six branches, three on each side, are left, and 
the lower twigs shortened. Each of the branches left develops, during the year, 
as the one shown in Fig. 2, which is then cut at C again, and the shoots B and D 
are shortened. This process starts out the upper shoots, and appears the follow- 
ing year as A in Fig. 3, and it is again cut at C. This causes the two upper 
shoots to develop, and at the end of the year they appear as shown at BB in Fig. 4, 
Thus they stand at the fourth year's pruning, and each of them is cut at C, and A 
is shortened and D allowed to develop. By this time the tree has a spherical 
or vase form, and exposes much surface to the sun, which is desirable. 

The young branches that spring in the form of a cross on the more vigorous 
branches, bear only wood buds ; the others, which are weaker, bear fruit buds 
on their whole length and burst into blossom at the spring of the second year. 
The latter never blossom again in the same place, but the shoot extends itself 
and forces two lateral ones. These new shoots bear the following spring, and 
so on. It must therefore be always borne in mind that the olive bears only on 
the two-year-old wood. If the new shoots are formed every year, the olive 
will bear annually ; but in years of good crops, the sap employed to nourish 
the fruit only produces a number of very diminutive shoots, and the next crop 
is a short one. The pruning ought to favor the growth of young lateral shoots, 
either by shortening the terminal ones, suppressing the "gormand," or fruitless 
shoots, or by reducing in a certain proportion, each year, the fruit-bearing 
shoots, if we wish for a crop every year. The shortening of a branch is made 
immediately above an outside bud in an oblique direction, the interior one 
being suppressed. The suckers at the root of the tree should be continually 
cut off. 

Concerning the time for pruning, the best season is said to be when the 
winter frosts are well over and just before the sap starts in the spring. By 
early pruning the sap is made to act upon the buds unfavorably situated on the 
tree, brings them out, and also develops latent buds on the old wood. Thus one 
is enabled to prevent the tree from becoming covered with naked limbs. 



THE FRUIT AND ITS PRODUCTS 

The agricultural experiment station of the University of California 
was occupied for many years in the growth of olives and close exam- 
ination of olive products both by laboratory and practical test. The 
publications of the station discuss the operations of oil making and 
pickling and the suitability of varieties and for the purpose ot this 
treatise outlines will be drawn from these sources. 

Gathering the Fruit — Olives should be picked carefully and at 
the right time. For green pickles they should be picked very soon after 
they obtain full size, but before they have begun to color or soften. 
For ripe pickles and for oil making the fruit should be gathered when 
it contains the maximum amount of oil. This is soon after the olives 
are well colored, but before they have attained the deep black which 
signifies overripeness. If the olives are gathered too green the oil 
will be bitter; if too ripe, it will be rancid. When they can be easily 
shaken from the tree they are ripe enough. If they commence to fall 
without vigorous shaking they are overripe. For whatever purposes 
the olives are to be used they should be carefully gathered by hand, 
and imperfect, immature, or bruised fruit rejected. Sound fruit is 
required for high-grade oil or for handsome pickles with good keeping 
quality. 



OLIVE OIL IN CALIFORNIA 345 

THE MANUFACTURE OF OLIVE OIL 

Olive oil is made in this State with apparatus of both Californian 
and Europeon design, and, as a rule, there is made only one, and at 
most but two, pressings of the pomace, which is then used for fattening 
swine. In the frequent working over of the pomace, and the close 
extraction of the oil, as practiced in Europe, we have done little as yet. 

Olive oil is made on a small scale by a number of parties who use 
home-made contrivances, or small, portable cider machinery for the 
crushing and pressing. During the last few years quite a number of 
mills have been erected at several points in California and they have 
made a market for the olives produced by growers who do not care 
to undertake manufacture. A detailed account of oil making, includ- 
ing descriptions- of buildings and machinery, published by the University 
Experiment Station has been out of print for several years, but can be 
consulted in libraries.* As this is available to those who desire such 
specific information, only an outline will be undertaken for the informa- 
tion of the general reader. 

Drying. — Extraction of oil from fresh olives gives the best oil, 
but it is somewhat troublesome, and it is customary to partially dry 
them. This partial drying is also useful to keep the fruit for some 
time or for shipment before crushing. Place the olives in layers not 
more than three inches deep, on trays that are stacked in a dry, well- 
aired room, protected from the wind and the direct rays of the sun. 
Turn daily until the fruit becomes well wrinkled. This requires about 
eight or ten days, according to the degree of temperature. The par- 
tially dried fruit may be stored in a dark room where the temperature 
does not rise above sixty degrees Fahrenheit, for three or four weeks 
without any serious deterioration of oil. To hasten the drying process, 
artificial driers, constructed on the same principle as the fruit or hop 
driers, are sometimes used. The olives are placed in a single layer 
upon trays, and the drier is kept at a temperature of about one hundred 
and twenty degrees Fahrenheit ; at over one hundred and thirty degrees 
Fahrenheit the quality of the oil may be impaired. The drying takes 
about forty-eight hours — more or less — according to the nature of 
the fruit. 

Crushing. — The olives are usually crushed by heavy stone roll- 
ers revolving in a circular depression in a bed of masonry into which 
the fruit is placed. Chrushers with corrugated bronze or bronzed metal 
rollers are now made that perform their work in a very satisfactory 
manner, breaking up the flesh and pits very thoroughly. As they are 
all of metal they absorb no oil and are easily cleaned. It is very 
essential that the flesh should be crushed thoroughly in order to break 
up the cells and permit the oil to be pressed out. 

Pressing. — When the revolving crusher has reduced the olives 
to a mass, the pomace is shoveled up from the bed of the mill and pre- 
pared for pressing. Instead of the fabric of woven £sparto grass which 
is used abroad, coarse linen cloth is used. A certain amount of the 

•"California Olive Oil:., its Manufacture," by G. W. Shaw, Bulletin 159, University 
Experiment Station, Berkeley, Cal. 



346 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

pulp is put in each cloth, so that when the cloth is folded back it makes 
a cheese about three feet square and three inches thick. Ten or more 
of these cheeses are placed one above the other, with slats between, and 
the pressure applied gently at first. From the liquid which runs out 
first is made the very finest oil, known as "virgin oil." The pressure is 
then increased very gradually until the full power of the machine is 
reached. This presses out the second quality of oil, which is generally 
mixed with the first. After obtaining all the oil possible by the first 
pressure the "cheese" is taken out, thoroughly broken up in hot water, 
and again pressed. This yields the third quality, which is very much in- 
ferior to the first and second. Sometimes the "cheese" from the first 
pressing is thoroughly broken up with cold water and pressed again 
before being treated with hot water. In this way a little oil is obtained 
that differs a little from the second quality, and may be mixed with it. 
After this a certain amount of oil still remains in the "cheese," but it 
can be extracted only by very powerful hydraulic presses, or by chemical 
means, and then is of very inferior quality, and suitabk only for burning 
or for soap making. 

Settling and Clarifying. — The liquid from the press is dark col- 
ored, and it is conducted into a receptacle for settling. Much of the 
foreign matter quickly separates, the oil appearing on the top. The oil 
is removed to other receptacles in which it can stand from two to five 
months for perfect separation of undesirable sediment. These settling 
tanks may be of well-tinned metal, or of cement lined with glass or other 
impervious substance. The first settling is conveniently made by means 
of a funnel-shaped apparatus, which by its conical shape facilitates the 
rapid deposition of sediment. After standing for twenty-four hours 
in this apparatus the major part of the sediment is deposited and can 
be drawn off at the bottom. It is well, before running the oil into the 
settling tanks, to pass it through two or three inches of cotton wool. 
This is accomplished by means of a funnel with a perforated, horizontal 
cross partition, upon which the cotton is placed. It takes, generally, 
about one month for the oil to settle sufficiently in the first tank, after 
which it 'should be drawn off carefully into the second, and so on until 
it is sufficiently bright. Three rackings are usually sufficient. 

Olives are sometimes ground and pressed in portable cider mills or 
ground in barley crushers for oil manufacture on a small scale. As the 
above description shows, oil making is a simple process, and may be 
carried on at home with rude devices. It is, however, a process requir- 
ing care and cleanliness, and intelligent personal attention. 



PICKLING THE OLIVE 

Olives are pickled in a green state, as is the case with the imported 
olives ; or in a ripe state, as largely undertaken in California. No one 
had any conception at first of the difficulties attending the production 
of pickled ripe olives which would have the keeping quality demanded 
in an article of commerce. It is now clearly seen that treating olives to 
extract the bitterness and to secure firmness, good flavor and keeping 



OLIVE PICKLING METHODS 347 

quality is one of the most difficult propositions in our horticultural 
manufacturiiifT. and we can but admire the wisdom of the Spaniard in 
teaching; An<;lo-Saxons to enjoy green olives. To succeed with the ripe 
olive requires the utmost patience, experience, and intelligence, and one 
who undertakes it must not get weary of the most exhaustive study of 
difficulties that may arise and how to meet them. When the most care- 
ful jiicklers with the best appliances sometimes lose hundreds of dollars 
worth in sjiite of all they know about it, the difficulty of the matter 
may be appreciated. 

The following is an outline of the pickling of olives as drawn from 
the University publications by Professor Bioletti : 

The pickling of olives involves three steps : I. Treatment with lye to neutral- 
ize the acidity and bitterness. 2. Repeated soaking in water to remove the 
excess of lye. 3. Salting by soaking in brines of gradually increasing strengths. 

(1) Neutralization. Soak the olives for twelve hours in a solution made by 
dissolving IVL* pounds of caustic potash in 12 gallons of water. Very bitter 
olives may require a second treatment with fresh lye (Mission, Manzanillo, 
Sevillano) ; sweeter olives may require a weaker lye (Ascolano, Columbella). 
With soft olives. IJ/^ pounds of salt should be added to the lye. The olives should 
be kept submerged by means of a floating cover and the lye drawn from the 
bottom and poured over the top two or three times to insure equal treatment. 

(2) Soaking. When, by examination of the color of the flesh of the olives, 
it is found that the lye has penetrated nearly to the pit, they should be removed 
to pure water. This water is renewed at least once a day until the lye is removed, 
which requires two or three days. With soft olives, a brine containing about 
two pounds of salt to twelve gallons of water should be used for removing the lye. 

(3) Salting. When the lye and most of the bitterness have been removed 
the olives should be placed in stronger brine. If the olives are to be canned or 
bottled, a brine containing about five pounds of salt to twelve gallons of water 
is sufficiently strong. If they are to be kept in barrels ten or twelve pounds of 
salt will be needed. The olives must be prepared for the strong brine gradually 
by being placed in new brines every three to four days. Each brine .should be 
about two per cent stronger than the last. 

Precautions. — Strong lye tends to soften the fruit. A second 
treatment is weak lye is better for bitter olives than a strong lye. Salt 
has a tendency to harden the fruit and can be used to counteract the 
softening effect of the lye with very ripe olives. Strong brine will 
shrink and shrivel the olives, unless they are prepared for it by solu- 
tions of gradually increasing strengths. 

Color. — With ripe pickles, the object is to have the color as uni- 
form and dark as possible. Uniformity is obtained by pickling each 
variety by itself, bv having the fruit as evenly ripe as possible and by 
exposing the olives to each solution in as uniform a manner as possible. 
Spotting comes usually from unevenness of the lye treatment, and 
especially from allowing some olives to float on the surface. Depth 
of color is obtained by having the olives thoroughly ripe. By exposing 
the olives to the air for several hours between the various solutions, 
both the depth and uniformity of the color are increased. 

W^ith green olives, the air should be excluded as much as possible, 
until the final brine is reached. A little vinegar improves both the color 
and flavor of green olives. Some picklers advise the addition also of a 
few bay leaves. 



348 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Pure-Water Process. — The best pickled olives are made without 
the use of lye, but this process is only practicable with olives whose 
bitterness is easily extracted, and where the water is extremely pure 
and plentiful, and even then it is very slow and tedious. It omits the 
preliminary lye treatment. The olives are placed from the beginning 
in pure water, which is changed twice a day until the bitterness is 
sufficiently extracted. This requires from forty to sixty days or more. 
The extraction is sometimes hastened by making two or three shallow, 
longitudinal slits in each olive, but this modification, besides requiring 
a large amount of expensive handling, renders the fruit peculiarly 
susceptible to bacterial decay and softening. Altogether the pure-water 
process can not be recommended for California, as it is too expensive 
and uncertain. 

Green Pickles. — Green pickled olives are made by essentially 
the same processes as are used for ripe olives. The extraction of the 
bitterness requires the same care. The olives are pickled soon after 
they have attained full size, and before they have shown any signs of 
coloring or softening. They contain at this time comparatively little 
oil, and are in every way much inferior to the ripe pickles in nutritive 
value. They are not a food but a relish. They are rather more easily 
made than the ripe pickles, as there is less danger of spoiling. 

CANNING THE RIPE OLIVE 

The use of heat and hermetical sealing after the pickling process is 
completed is a recourse to avoid the difficulties of ripe pickling and 
canned olives, put upon the market in the same form as other canned 
fruits, have recently become popular. There are special canneries for 
their preparation at several points in the State and the general can- 
neries are also handling olives in considerable quantities. The process 
is in the main like that of canning other fruits, but special points have 
to be learned through experience. The University investigation of 
the effect of heat on the olive shows that ripe pickled olives, heated to 
175 degrees F., kept perfectly for thirty-two months. By heating them 
still higher in sealed cans on bottles they can be kept indefinitely with 
as great facility as any other food product. The heating does not in- 
jure the flavor and the texture, but, on the contrary, improves them. 
Olives, preserved by heating do not require such strong brine, and it is 
only necessary to add as much salt as the palate requires. The heating 
causes some of the coloring matter to diffuse into the brine, so that the 
olives are made a little lighter colored. With time, however, the 
colored matter diffuses out in the same way from unheated olives, so 
that at the end of a year the heated olives are actually darker in color 
than the unheated. 

VARIETIES OF THE OLIVE GROWN IN CALIFORNIA 

Many varieties of the olive have been brought to California from 
southern Europe during the last thirty years. Fifty-seven varieties 
have been analyzed and elaborately reported upon by the University 



POPULAR VARIETIES OF THE OLIVE 349 

experts, and of these about fifteen varieties at first promised to rise to 
commercial account but many of them have been dropped. It is an 
interesting^ fact, however, that in spite of all the efforts put forth to 
secure a better olive than the old Mission variety, this old sort still 
heads the list. Several varieties at first popular have been abandoned 
because of an interior decay of the pulp. 

The following are the varieties now favored in California on a 
commercial scale, arranged approximately in the order of their present 
popularity: Mission; Manzanillo; Ascolano; Sevillano; Nevadillo. 

Other varieties sometimes used for pickling are: Oblitza ; Macro- 
carpa ; Picholine ; Columbella ; Regalia ; Goodal ; Atro-rubens ; Verdale ; 
Santa Caterina. 

These may be taken, then, as practically all the varieties to which 
planters are giving attention. Of course future experience may pro- 
duce changes in this list, but there is little present indication that it will 
be much enlarged. Descriptions of many other varieties are retained, 
largely for old acquaintance sake : 

The Mission Olive. — By this name is signified the variety found growing at 
the old missions in Cahfornia. Samples of the fruit and leaves sent by F. Pohn- 
dorff to Don Jose de Hidalgo Toblada, a noted Spanish authority on the olive, 
led to the classing of our mission varieties with the Cornicabra-Cornizuelo 
varieties of Spain, and its value was confirmed. It has long been known that the 
s )-called Mission olive embraced several varieties, or sub-varieties at least. 

Common or Broad-Leaved Mission Olive. — The variety of olive most generally 
known as the Mission ; ovate, oblique — sometimes very much so — the pit straight 
or slightly curved, fruit very variable in size, growing singly or in clusters of two 
or three, or even five; time of ripening, late, in the coast region sometimes not 
before February, but generally in December; in warm localities in Xovcmber; 
tree vigorous and a good bearer, preferred by picklers. 

Redding Picholine. — Imported by the late B. B. Redding. A perfect oval in 
shape, ripens early, several weeks earlier than the common Mission ; dark purple 
or black when ripe; in pickling the pulp loses the bitterness quickly, the fruit 
beinrr very pleasant. This variety was propagated extensively, in the State and, 
until fruiting was supposed to be a large pickling variety, but it proved to be a 
small seedling — a shoot coming from the root below the graft, probably. It has 
produced oil of good quality. The smallness of the fruit is its irremediable 
defect. It roots very readily from cuttings and is used as a stock on which to 
graft improved varieties. 

Picholine d'Ai.v — Fruit medium, enlongated, tapering toward ape.x which is 
pointed ; reddish black when ripe. 

Picholine de Stt. Chamas. — Oblong, reddish black; highly esteemed in France 
for quality when picked. 

Oblonga. — Imported by John Rock from France. An olive of a peculiar, 
club-like shape, being narrow at the stem end, broad at the point, rounded and 
strongly oblique ; generally pointed at both ends. The pulp loses its bitterness 
comparatively quickly in picking. This olive ripens quite early — at least two or 
three weeks earlier than the Broad-leaved Mission; color, dark purple. 

Pendoulier. — Large, oval, slightly curved at apex end ; desirable for pickling 
early ripening in October in the interior valley and in November in coast 
valleys. 

Mancanillo No. i. — Imported by F. Pohndorff from Spain, large regular 
rounded oval; pit straight, strongly pointed at the apex, nine-sixteenths of an 
inch long, five-sixteenths of an inch thick. Ripens early, several weeks' earlier 
than the Broad-leaved Mission The fruit grows on long stems. The puln parts 
readily with its bitterness, and is exceedingly rich when pickled. Excellent in 
the San Joaquin Valley both for oil and pickles. 



350 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

Mansanillo No. 2. — Imported by F. Pohndorff from Spain. As the name 
("small apple") indicates, this variety is nearly round, with a pit of rounded 
oval shape, rather squarely cut off at the base. This variety ripens early — • 
several weeks earlier than the Broad-leaved Mission olive; the fruit grows 
generally singly on long stems ; a trifle larger than Mission ; quality of pickles 
excellent; not a good bearer in all places and ripe fruit subject to rot in hot 
regions. 

Gordal. — A popular pickling olive in Spain, medium size, early. 

Rubra. — Imported by John Rock from France ; ovate, slightly oblique, looks 
a good deal like a small Mission olive ; pit straight, pointed ; ripens three to 
four weeks earlier than the common Mission variety; is of a jet black when 
ripe. This tree begins to fruit quite young, and is a prolific bearer. Very hardy 
and prolific even in dry situations. 

Atroviolacea. — Medium size, black, chiefly valuable for oil. 

Uvaria. — Imported by John Rock from France. Oval, regular, and rounded 
on both ends ; pit straight, heavy, late ; later than the common Mission olive ; 
color dark purple or black when ripe. The name, "grape-like," is well chosen, 
the fruit growing in clusters, as many as seven together, and in shape them- 
selves resembling the grape. Very prolific. 

Pendulina. — Imported by John Rock from France. An even, oval shape, 
rounded at both ends, quite variable in size, many fruits remaining small and 
undeveloped ; pit has small, sharp points often at both ends. Fruit grows in 
clusters of from two to five ; the pulp parts very readily with its bitterness. 
Larger and more ovate than Pendoulier. Tree a strong grower ; fruit desirable 
both for oil and pickles. 

Colnmbella. — Imported by John Rock from France. General form, broadly 
oval ; very even in size, remarkable for the peculiar pale yellow color which all 
the fruit assumes before turning fully ripe and becoming dark purple ; pit small, 
straight and sharp pointed ; the pulp contains little bitterness ; flavor very rich ; 
ripens late, later than the Broad-leaved Mission. Tree hardy in dry places and 
a prolific bearer. Also called "Columella." 

Polymorpha. — Imported by John Rock from France. Very large, ovate, 
oblique, and pointed ; light colored ; pit square at the base, strongly pointed at 
the apex; flesh firm; ripens very early; fruit grows on strong stems in clusters 
of two or three. Tree not a strong grower, but productive. 

Lucques. — A variety specially adapted for pickling, though producing oil of 
good quality; strong-growing tree and hardy; sometimes shy bearer when young; 
fruit shiny black, curved ; product called "Crescent Olive." 

NevadUlo Blanco. — Imported by F. Pohndorff from Spain. Oval, slightly 
oblique, pointed, resembling somewhat a Mission, but is generally more elongated 
in proportion to its diameter than the latter; pit small, curved, and generally 
pointed at both ends; the fruit is borne in clusters of three to five; ripening not 
much earlier than the Mission ; a fine oil olive, largely planted, but disappointing 
in some regions as a shy bearer and subject to frost injury. 

Oblitsa. — Imported by the late G. N. Milco from Dalmatia ; resembles the 
Pendoulier, and may be identical ; fine in the San Joaquin Valley ; very large 
oval, but broad and rounded at both ends ; grows in clusters ; tree a good 
grower, hardy and productive ; fruit excellent for pickles ; ripens in November in 
the interior — about the same as the Mission. 

Sevillano. — Recently largely planted as the variety exported from Spain as 
the "Queen olive." Very large; only useful in pickling; when ripe, bluish black; 
clingstone. Tree a strong grower, leaves deep green, greenish white underneath. 
Described by Mr. Roeding as a regular bearer, but requires deep, rich, well- 
drained soil, and will not stand much cold. Sells at high prices because of 
great size ; ripens early. 

Ascolano. — "White olive of Ascoli." Very large, "large as a French prune 
and much like one in shape" (Bioletti). Excellent for pickles, but not desirable 
in color of either green or ripe pickles, and has to be carefully handled in 
pickling. Reported a good bearer and has recently been quite largely planted. 



CHAPTER XXXII 
THE ORANGE 

The orange leads all fruits of California. Near the close of Chapter 
VI will be found the numbers of trees and value of product, as reported 
by the United States census of 1910, and the railway shipments beyond 
State lines for a term of years, upon which the supremacy of the orange 
rests. In view of this leadership it seems fitting to take a little wider 
range in the discussion of the significance of the orange in the develop- 
ment of California than has been indulged in the consideration of other 
fruits, and this is justified by the fact that the orange is the chief ex- 
ponent of the horticultural resources of the State and its attributes in 
this direction are shared in varying degrees by the other fruits. The 
greatness of orange growing in California becomes, then, in various 
ways the token of our advancement in one of the highest of the agri- 
cultural arts, and in the mastery of long-distance commercial distribu- 
tion of fresh fruits. These achievements are also a demonstration of 
the quality of our agricultural citizenship.* 

The estimate of total production in boxes, and of market value at 
selling points, of California citrus fruits for a decade is as follows, the 
citrus year being from November 1 to October 31 : 

Year. Oranges. 

1903 8,094,720 

1904 10,246,656 

1905 10,225,809 

1906 8,973,342 

1907 10,290,729 

1908 10,742,944 

1909 13,441,011 

1910 11,187,792 

1911 15,645,168 

1912 13,680,612 

1913 6,346,692 

The descending scale since the maximum product of 1911 is due 
to frosts in 1912 and 1913, in which the decreased quantity was only 
partly covered by higher prices prevailing in those years. The 1914 
product is expected to occupy its proper place in a regularly ascending 
series. 

THE ORANGE INDUSTRY OF THE WORLD 

From the beginning the orange has reigned as king in the inter- 
national fruit trade of the world. The grape has always been and is 
still, greater in the value of its contribution to commerce and in the 

*The Orange Industry "Encyclopedia Americana," Scientific American, New York, 1904. 
"The Orange in Northern and Central California," California State Board of Trade, San 
Francisco, 1903, etc., by the -author. 

351 



Lemons. 


Retm-ns. 


826,500 


$ 9.995,375.55 


868,000 


11,505,895.43 


1,333,500 


15,773,190.14 


1,182,200 


21,024,814.16 


1,097,300 


22,267,344.14 


1,585.000 


21,238,213.26 


2,019,898 


23,121,231.27 


1,627,480 


25.01 1,0.27.85 


2.315,376 


33,613,927.01 


2,146,550 


28.240,135.64 


866,304 


20,998,105.04 



352 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

distance is safely traverses, but the grape rules not as fruit, but through 
its manufactured products, while the orange carries its natural beauty, 
fragrance and flavor unchanged around the world. From the earliest 
times the orange has not only been accepted in northern climes as a 
symbol of tropical and sub-tropical salubrity and sumptuousness, but 
by its own distinctive characteristics as a fruit it has won recognition 
as befitting the highest uses of mankind. By its nature too the orange 
ministers to its own commercial popularity. It endures long shipment ; 
it ripens slowly and through a season of several months which constitute 
the winter in northern latitudes when local fruits are scant or absent 
and the refreshment in the citric juices most welcome. The production 
of such a commercial commodity has from the earliest times constituted 
an important industry. 

It is a significant fact that though the orange thrives in the tropics 
it does not resent the slight touch of frost which characterizes semi- 
tropical situations. It is also significant that the fruit grown in semi- 
tropical countries, especially those which have a more or less distinctly 
marked two-season climate, differs in character from the strictly 
tropical orange and is firmer, heavier, more sprightly in flavor and with 
much better keeping and carrying qualities. The tropical orange has 
but small commercial importance ; the semi-tropical orange rules in the 
markets of the world. That the semi-tropical orange should have this 
distinctive character is most fortunate, for it ministers directly to the 
will for industry which is superior in semi-tropical countries. By the 
seven degrees of frost which the orange tree will endure without injury, 
it has ^gained the seventy degrees of north latitude through which its 
fruit freely seeks a market. Because, though the tropical orange 
would reach most distant markets in small quantities, it could never 
attain the commercial supremacy which the fruit now enjoys. 

The sweet orange is a native of eastern Asia and was carried thence 
to India and to Asia Minor. It possibly reached Portugal from India 
through the early Portuguese navigators. Thus the distribution of the 
fruit was westward. The history of modern commercial orange grow- 
ing consists of a series of progressive movements always trending 
westward and gaining in volume — the newer centers of production 
outstripping the older and ultimately largely displacing their product 
from the greatest markets of the upper divisions of the temperate zone. 
When the Moors introduced orange growing into Algeria and Spain 
they displaced the trafiic from Asia Minor and gave the Mediterranean 
region for several hundred years undisputed possession of the markets 
of the north of Europe and possession also of the American demand 
when that arose. When the Spaniards and Portuguese carried the 
orange to the West Indies and to Florida they laid the foundation for 
an industry which American enterprise developed in Florida until that 
district not only contended with the Mediterranean region for American 
markets, but was planning to invade northern Europe by direct ship- 
loads when the demonstration came that the climate of northern Florida 
and of the Gulf coast westward was too treacherous for commercial 
ventures in orange growing — at least with the then popular varieties 
and methods of propagation. But as the Florida supply failed through 







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THE ORANGES OF THE WORLD 353 

the severe freezing of 1895, California came forward and, though 
Florida has re-established her citrus industry, California is now not 
only supplying the larger part of the oranges consumed in the United 
States, but is selling the highest priced oranges in the London market 
against a world of competitors. 

In support of this contention let it be noted that the most important 
statistical statement of the world's citrus fruits in the English language 
was published April 15. 1914.* It shows that the annual citrus fruit 
crop of the world is equal to from ninety to one hundred million boxes 
of California size, which would fill two hundred and thirty to two 
hundred and fifty thousand carloads of California capacity. Of these 
the United States and Spain produce thirty per cent each ; Italy twenty- 
five per cent : Japan and Palestine each less than five per cent ; the bal- 
ance, scattering. The acreage both in California and Florida is in- 
creasing. The normal product of the United States is approximately 
78.000 carloads, and California, in view of recent plantings, 50,000 
carloads. All the countries thus mentioned as contributing to the 
world's commercial product are endowed with semi-tropical and not 
with tropical climates. 



RELATION OF CALIFORNIA TO THE WORLD'S 
ORANGE PRODUCT 

Competition with the product of California is working hardship in 
the Mediterranean region because this region can more than supply 
Europe, and needs American markets as an outlet. Italy has exported 
six million dollars worth of oranges and lemons in a year, but recently 
prices have declined and the interest is depressed. Every efifort is being 
made to secure relief from local taxation and from duties imposed by 
north European countries. The Spanish product of oranges and lemons 
which ranks with that of the United States, has to meet heavy tariflfs 
in all countries except the United Kingdom and the belief at Valencia 
is (U. S. Commercial Relations. Vol. 2, 1902, page 686) that the limit 
of British consumption of Valencia oranges at paying rates has been 
reached ; in fact, the British markets collapsed under the heavy ship- 
ments of 1901. When it is .stated that the value of oranges imported 
into the United Kingdom in 1900 was $10,603,950, and such a free 
buyer has more than enough, it can be realized how important it is to 
the Mediterranean producers that the populous countries of central 
Europe should hold less strictly to agrarian interests which aim to 
hamper the entrance of food supplies even if they can not themselves 
produce them. Manifestly the American product can only enter such 
markets with a fancy product which will win an extra price, except 
as a little diflFerence in the ripening season may aflFord an opportunity. 
The commercial position of the orange in the United States is also 
such as to awaken apprehension, because of the decreased import duties 
under the tariff of 1913. It will require time to demonstrate what the 

•Bulletin 11, California Citrus Protective League. Los .Angeles, "The World's Produc- 
tion and Commerce in Citrus Fruits and Their By-products," by F. O. Wallsclilaegcr, 
Secretary. 



354 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

full effect will be. The product of the West Indies is a direct menace 
to the Florida product, which meets it in point of market season, and 
the American product, which is undergoing expansion at the hands of 
American capitalists, is constantly feared by the California growers 
because the Mexican railway will give it quick entrance to the great 
central states and constant advantage in distribution to the East and 
the Northwest. The orange from the West Indies and South Florida 
is different from the California orange in main ripening season and 
in character of the fruit, but the differences do not give full relief. 
With the late ripening varieties, the California grower extends his 
shipments into the autumn and thus laps upon the early fruit from 
Florida and Jamaica, while the parts of California which bring earliest 
maturity to the fruit are shipping before the southern fruit is cleared 
away. In fact, California can keep the markets supplied with oranges 
fresh from the trees and in prime condition the year round. 

As to the difference in oranges grown under humid and arid con- 
ditions, the moisture being supplied by rainfall in one case and by 
irrigation in the other, there has been shown in the arid region orange 
a superior density, thinness and texture of rind, higher sugar and 
higher acid percentages and a more sprightly or vinous flavor. The 
popular conception of the superior sweetness of the orange grown in 
humid countries is due not to a greater amount of sugar in the juice, 
but to less amount of acid. The following are the determinations of 
sugar and acid of fully ripe Southern California and Florida navel 

oranges: ^ . „. . ., 

total sugar, Citric acid, 

per cent. per cent. 

California Navel 9.99 1.45 

Florida Navel 7.46 0.95 

Of course, the quality of an orange is largely inherent in the variety, 
but all varieties are similarly changed by growth under humid or arid 
conditions of climate and soil, and this modification becomes a factor 
of much industrial importance. This fact is strikingly illustrated by 
the standing of the navel orange in California. This variety has been 
grown for a century or more as the chief orange in Bahia, Brazil, 
whence it was taken to California. In Brazil it demonstrated no ship- 
ping qualities, and according to Burke (U. S. Special Consular Re- 
ports, Vol. 1, page 411) would need to be picked before maturity if to 
be shipped, while as grown in California and Arizona it is picked at full 
maturity and is successfully shipped all over the United States and to 
Europe. An examination of the Bahia district in 1913, by A. D. 
Shamel and associates, showed that the orange which is the foundation 
of the export industry of California is, in its home, only an article of 
local trade. 

Orange growing in Florida is recovering from serious reverses. 
The product of 1894 was about 4.000,000 boxes. Then came the dis- 
astrous freezing in December of 1894 and February, 1895, with a tem- 
perature of 14 degrees Fahrenheit at Jacksonville, and in the latter 
year only 75,000 boxes were shipped. In 1912-13 the produ.ct was 
about 8,000,000 boxes, produced in the central and southern parts of 
the State. In Louisiana the freezing of 1895 nearly annihilated the 



BREADTH OF CITRUS CONDITIONS IN CALIFORNIA 355 

citrus fruit interest and only recently has there been any disposition to 
resume production on a commercial scale. In Texas there is a rising 
orange industry on the basis of hardy Japanese varieties, largely. Its 
future is a matter of conjecture. In the southwestern corner of Ari- 
zona there is a small orange industry which is successfully shipping 
navel oranges to distant markets. Conditions favor early ripening and 
an advantage is secured by sale in advance of the main California 
product. From California the shipments of oranges beyond State lines 
in 1911 were about 16,CKX),000 boxes. The orange industry of the 
United States is now largely supplying the home demand for the fruit. 
Imports of oranges reached their highest value in 1883 at $3,010,662, 
and have since then declined. The value in 1913 was $227,827.50 — 
much less than one-tenth of the imports of thirty years ago. 

The orange industry of the United States is unique in the high 
social and financial standing of those who have engaged in it, and in 
the striking features of its development. Both in Florida and in Cali- 
fornia large scale production was first undertaken by northern men 
who had gained wealth and had lost health in the pursuit of it. They 
brought capital and commercial ability to the ventures which they 
exploited. The professional classes of the north also participated 
largely in the work, bringing scholarship, insight and experience in 
organization. There were a few also who possessed horticultural ex- 
perience, but the other classes largey predominated. The result has 
been the development of an industry characteristically American in 
spirit and new in methods. It has borrowed very little from the prac- 
tices of old world orange growers. Free from tradition and prejudice 
it proceeded rapidly upon the results of original investigation and ex- 
periment, establishing a system of culture and of commercial handling 
of the product which are without precedent in the older orange regions 
of the world. 



THE ORANGE A STATE AFFAIR IN CALIFORNIA 

Thus far the discussion has been based upon the achievements of 
Southern California and the efiforts made to assign them due credit for 
greatness and uniqueness. The relation of Southern California to other 
parts of the State in orange growing is not less important and signifi- 
cant. 

Citrus fruit trees have been successfully grown in suitable situations 
in northern California for nearly half a century. There is a famous 
orange tree at Bidwells Bar, in Butte County, which was started from 
an Acapulco seed in Sacramento in 1855, and planted out in Butte 
County in 1859, which has been generally made to stand sponsor for 
the demonstration of citrus conditions north of the Tehachapi Moun- 
tains, but it is not entitled to all the distinction which has been heaped 
upon it. In the fifties there were other orange and lemon trees growing 
in widely separated northern localities — in the valleys of the San Fran- 
cisco Bay region, also near the rivers and among the low foothills on 
both sides of the Sacramento Valley. It was, even in early days, the 
proper thing to include citrus trees among ornamental dooryard plant- 



356 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

ings and one reason why the demonstration at Bidwells Bar was so 
widely accepted as complete, when it was brought forward as a guar- 
anty for commercial planting in the later eighties, was because similar 
instances of successful old trees existed in many and widely separated 
places. 

This question naturally suggests itself : Why, if such early demon- 
stration was had, was large commercial planting of the orange delayed 
at the north until after southern California became famous for its 
orange product? Several good reasons can be adduced. In the first 
place a disposition toward wider planting did at one time arise and 
quickly subsided. In the later seventies when the general rush to fruit 
growing, which has resulted in the present vast extension of the inter- 
est, began, citrus fruits were not overlooked. There was a sharp de- 
mand for orange trees. Southern California nurseries had a large over- 
stock of trees budded on China lemon roots which southern California 
planters had learned to despise as forcing excessive growth of tree, 
and large, coarse fruit. The natural tendency of such a root, exag- 
gerated by excessive irrigation in the nursery, gave a stem as thick as 
a broom stick and higher than a man in a few months' time, and these 
soft monstrosities were sent north by carloads, by astute tree specula- 
tors, and sold to unwary planters, who thought they were getting a great 
deal for their money. Such trees were planted in all sorts of situations 
and their broad leaves made a fine display as soon as planted. There 
were fond anticipations of evergreen orchards everywhere from the 
swamps to the hillsides. Then came the cold winter of 1878-9. The 
temperature in places reasonably situated was not very low — not lower 
than is frequently encountered in southern California and not low 
enough to injure well placed old trees, though it did destroy some ill- 
placed ones and helped to define suitable situations for citrus culture 
in the north as such temperatures have also defined them at the south. 
But the degree reached was fatal to those soft trees on a lemon 
foundation almost everywhere, and the disappointment of the new 
planters who based calculations upon them, discouraged them from 
further efforts toward citrus culture for some time. It was not a 
logical conclusion because a careful inquiry made after the frosts in 1879 
elicited careful written statements from sixty-nine orange growers, 
living in thirty counties and fully justified this conclusion, which was 
at that time published : "this mass of testimony shows that orange 
growing is no longer an experiment in the north, and that, notwith- 
standing the severe frosts of such winters as this, orange and lemon 
trees can be profitably cultivated in nearly every county in the State, 
and by selecting favorable localities, no district, except it be situated in 
the high Sierra, need be without these most beautiful and useful fruits." 

But there was another and more logical reason why the well suited 
lands in the central part of the State were not at that time given to 
citrus fruit culture. Citrus fruits require irrigation everywhere ; decid- 
uous fruits, including the grape, do not require irrigation except in 
places of shallow soil or light rainfall. Without waiting for irrigation 
facilities then, hundreds of thousands of acres of deep valley loams 
were immediately available for the planting of deciduous fruits. The 



RELATIONS OF DECIDUOUS AND CITRUS FRUITS 357 

g^rowers understood these fruits, while the orange to an EngHsh-speak- 
ing people was an unsolved problem. The long list of deciduous fruits 
had varieties to suit the taste and ambitions of all planters and the 
opportunity for selling many different fruits and their different products 
seemed illimitable. "The world for a market" seemed a reasonable 
proposition, for deciduous fruits and their products had been shipped 
to eastern markets since the first overland railway was opened in 1868, 
and very large prices were attained, just often enough to be alluring. 
No citrus fruits had been shipped out of the State on a commercial 
scale, and no one knew that they could be, profitably. The central and 
northern districts threw their full strength into the deciduous fruit 
interest and the result has justified the effort, for, at the present time, 
the annual shipments of deciduous orchard fruits fresh dried and 
canned ; the grape, both fresh, as raisins and as wine and brandy, has 
reached a total value of about sixty millions of dollars — almost all of 
it from the regions of California north of the Tehachapi Mountains. 
The engrossing requirements of this grandly successful undertaking 
gave northern growers, packers and capitalists no leisure to think seri- 
ously of citrus fruit planting — that was left for a decade and a half to 
the special attention of the southern California people, and they de- 
veloped it splendidly for the settlement and upbuilding of their portion 
of the State — reaching a total value of product sold beyond State lines, 
of about eighteen millions of dollars. The chief reason, then, why, 
although citrus adaptations were demonstrated very early in the upper 
part of the State, the commercial planting was largely postponed to 
the present decade, was that the people were too busy developing a 
greater fruit industry to which their conditions were superlatively 
suited. 

During the last few years new interest has arisen in citrus fruit 
growing in northern California and all the scattered experiences of the 
last half century are becoming of inestimable value in guiding this 
planting aright. There are several important reasons why the north 
has now turned to the orange. 

First : Deciduous fruit production has reached large volumes, mar- 
gins have become reduced to those which assert themselves in any 
well established and extensive industry, and some of the early glamour 
has gone out of it. It will henceforth proceed soberly, and consequently 
safely, to grand aggregates which no one can foresee, but it is readily 
demonstrable that with the present rush of population to the more 
wintry districts of the Pacific slope, the opening of .\siatic connections 
and the victories being attained each year in the distant East and in 
Europe, our production of deciduous fruits and their products will go 
steadily forward. Increased interest in citrus fruit planting in northern 
California is in no sense a menace to the deciduous fruit industry. It 
is merely a new graft upon a very vigorous industrial stock. 

Second : Owing to natural conditions which will be briefly ex- 
plained presently, orange growing can be pursued at the north without 
competition with the main crop in southern California. The northern 
California crop will be consumed before the bulk of the southern crop 
moves from the trees. 



358 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

Third: All California oranges have characteristics and qualities 
which are recognized as of distinctive excellence, and therefore have 
a commercial advantage which enables them to compensate the liigh 
grade American labor which is employed in their growth, packing and 
marketing, and leave a reasonable return to require the grower's effort 
and investment. This being so, the production, so long as protection is 
continued in adequate amount, justifies extension of the effort to pro- 
duce an American orange for Americans. 

Fourth : Semi-tropical fruits are nature's demonstration of the ex- 
istence in a place of a climate which promotes health, comfort and a 
maximum of physical and intellectual attainment in mankind. Prob- 
ably all that is urged against tropical climates as enervating and de- 
pressing of human standards is true, but not a word of it applies to an 
arid semi-tropical climate, in which the blessing of dry air and freedom 
from the debilitating effect of temperature extremes rejuvenate the old 
and weary and bring the young to stature and stalwartness which all 
newcomers notice in the rising generation of Californians. Of the exist- 
ence of such conditions a well-grown orange of the California type is un- 
impeachable evidence. It has brought a hundred thousand people and a 
hundred millions of capital to southern California which would not 
have come otherwise. In the conscious strength with which northern 
California has recently awakened to make systematic effort for settle- 
ment and development, the orange is accepted as an exponent of the 
possession of those natural characters of sky and air and soil, constitut- 
ing the most desirable environments of human life — the highest desira- 
bility in the location of a home. 

Fifth : It is but a corollary of the foregoing that the successful and 
profitable production of citrus fruits is par excellence the motive force 
in promoting colony efforts and in drawing into horticulture the class 
of people which constitutes the most desirable element in the upbuild- 
ing of a great State — people who know what is noble and desirable in 
human life and desire it for their children ; people who know how to se- 
cure what their aspirations and tastes approve ; people who by intellect- 
ual force and training and by successful professional and industrial 
experience are prepared for attainment in the higher horticultural arts 
and in the new commercial efforts which make those arts profitable. 
The splendid development of southern California communities upon a 
horticultural bases points the way to achievements in other suitable 
parts of the State, and the citrus fruits become then the token, not alone 
of superior natural endowments, but of the type of manhood which can 
use them to the best advantage. None know this better than the south- 
ern California people themselves, and it is a demonstration of the desir- 
ability both of the natural resources of northern California in citrus lines 
and of citrus fruit culture itself, that in all the newer citrus regions 
at the north, there are to be fovmd among the leading planters and 
promoters, southern Californians who have sold their early plantings at 
the south at high prices to newer comers and have started anew in the 
northern districts, where they find cheaper land, more abundant water 
supply and fruit which is marketed at an earlier date. 



I 



CITRUS CONDITIONS NORTH AND SOUTH 359 

DISTRIBUTION OF CITRUS CONDITIONS IN 
CALIFORNIA 

The claim has been made above tliat citrus culture conditions exist 
in suitable situations in central and northern California from Shasta 
to San Dieg^o county, and historical evidence has been cited to prove it. 
It is so surprising that practically the same climate should be foimd 
through a distance of between seven and eight degrees of latitude that 
many, even of those who have lived in California, do not appreciate the 
fact, nor know the explanation of it. An effort is made toward such 
explanation in Chapter I of this work. Even at the risk of repetition 
the subject will be reviewed with special reference to the occurrence of 
conditions affecting the growth of citrus fruits. 

First: California is not only blessed with benign ocean influences, 
but northern California is additionally protected from low winter tem- 
peratures by the mountain barrier or the Sierra Nevada, extending 
southward from the multiplied masses of protecting elevations in the 
Shasta region, while Southern California enjoys the protection of the 
Sierra Madre and other uplifts on the north and east of her citrus 
region. Northern blizzards are. therefore, held back from entrance to 
California and are forced to confine themselves to southerly and easterly 
directions over the interior parts of the Pacific slope, while the great 
blizzards of the northwest traverse the Mississippi Valley and, if they 
have sufficient impetus, extend to the gulf and carry destruction to 
semi-tropical growths even in northern Florida. The ocean then bring- 
ing warmth and the high mountains defending against cold, combine 
their influences to give nearly the whole length of California semi- 
tropical winter temperatures. 

Second : Although this striking similarity does exist, in citrus dis- 
tricts north and south, there is another even more startling proposi- 
tion involved and that is the influence exerted by the presence of the 
coast range as the western boundary of the great interior valley of the 
State, and intervening between that great valley and the ocean. The 
several ridges of the coast range with their enclosed small valleys serve 
as a colossal wind-break against northwest winds, which might other- 
wise, now and again, bring a temperature too low for citrus fruits, 
where now they are safe from injury. The chief effect of these moun- 
tains is to protect the northern interior valleys and foothills from the 
raw winds of early springtime and to allow the sun as he crosses each 
day higher in his course, to expend the increasing heat directly in pro- 
moting vernal verdue. The result is a protected interior region in 
central and northern California, of quick growth in all lines — early 
pasturage, early grain harvest and early fruit ripening. The valleys 
of southern California, which have thus far been largely developed, 
have no high range between them and the ocean. They arc open on the 
west because the coast range of mountains takes a sharp turn eastward 
in the southern part of the State and afterward curves southward, pass- 
ing along the eastern side of the chief productive region. The influence 
of this opening of the valleys of southern California is not so unfavor- 
able as such opening would be at the north, because ocean winds are 



360 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

gentler and warmer there, and there is winter service rendered by this 
eastward trend of the southern Cahfornia mountains, as has been said, 
but the fact remains that the absence of high barriers against ocean 
influences retards the springtime and causes a slow development of 
summer conditions and late ripening of fruits, while the presence of 
high barriers at the north so hastens springtime and summer heat, that 
early summer fruits in California are shipped from the north to the 
south — a thing which does not occur anywhere else in the northern 
hemisphere. It is due to this same early start which the local topog- 
raphy gives to the orange, followed by the high summer heat which 
is essential to the development of a good orange, that the orange reaches 
an acceptable commercial condition at an earlier date in suitable 
interior places at the north and is at present being almost wholly shipped 
to eastern markets before free movement begins at the south. This 
early marketing also relieves the growers of much anxiety and costly 
frost fighting, because the fruit, which is always more susceptible to 
injury that the tree, is out of the way before the frost period, which 
usually begins about Christmas, is reached. 

There is in southern California, east of the mountains, a district 
which has thus far been but scantily developed where protection from 
ocean influences tends to early ripening of fruits. The same is true of 
some parts of Arizona adjacent, and small quantities of early fruits 
move westward and northward from that region. That region is not 
in view in this discussion, for too little has been accomplished in citrus 
lines to warrant conclusions which the present confident planting in 
that part of the State will soon supply. 

Third : Still another feature of local topography must be mentioned 
as influencing citrus conditions north and south and explaining why 
winter temperature has fallen no lower at the north that at the south. 
At the north the snow fields of the high mountains are farther from the 
valleys and mesas, where citrus fruits are grown than they are at the 
south. The benches and low foothills of the Sacramento Valley, for 
instance, are forty to fifty miles from the high range to the east of them 
and there intervene countless ridges of high foothills and small valleys, 
and before the citrus plantations can be reached by the descending air 
currents they are considerably warmed by rustling over so much land 
which has been warmed by the ampler winter sunshine. From many of 
the southern citrus regions one looks almost directly upward and out- 
ward upon the grand snow-clad mountains, whose crests are but fif- 
teen to twenty-five miles away. It is a splendid scenic eflfect — ripening 
oranges and dazzling snow fields in the same glance of the eye, but it is 
sometimes not so grand as a pomological proposition. 

Fourth : Another protective influence for citrus fruit trees during 
the frosty period of December and January, is the low canopy of land 
fog which covers the interior valley of central and northern California 
much of the time at that season of the year and checks the radiation 
of ground heat which is apt to take place rapidly under a clear sky. 
Though the nights are thus often protected from frosts, the day tem- 
perature is held low, which is also of account, because the citrus trees 
are held dormant, which is desirable, as there is no fruit to ripen. On 



THE OltfVNGE OUTLOOK 361 

the other hand, tlic hii^hcr clay temperature in soutiiern California is 
vakiable in that district because the later fruit is still maturing. The 
winter aspects of the trees in northern and southern California are 
therefore quite different; in the north, the dark green of dormancy; in 
the south, the gold of the fruit and the oft-protrucHng light green of the 
winter wood growth. In both regions all growth conditions seem 
good; each after its own kind, and the two, in a sense, complimentary. 
During the last few years there has been rapid extension of orange 
planting, particularly in the suitable lands on the eastern rim of the 
San Joaquin and on both sides of the Sacramento valley. The orange 
product of tlie northern district is normally about one-eighth of the 
State product, though in 1913 it rose to about one fourth of it because 
it was marketed before the frost period. It will increase rapidly, for 
of about two million trees now growing, only have half attained bear- 
ing age and planting is still being freely undertaken. Three-quarters 
of all the trees north of the Tehachapi mountains are in the citrus 
districts of eastern Tulare County. 



THE GENER.\L OUTLOOK FOR THE ORANGE 

At the present time orange growing has a very promising outlook. 
The prospect for much larger consumption, at the east and abroad, is 
very encouraging. The orange is passing from its old status as a lux- 
ury to its proper recognition as a staple winter fruit for dwellers in 
cold climates. For such use the agreeable acid and sprightly flavor of 
the California fruit especially commends it. The consumption of the 
fruit per capita, away from California, is still small and will be greatly 
increased when people know better its desirability and the reasonable 
prices at which it can be secured. This wider distribution is to be con- 
fidently expected and the rapid increase in population through the great 
west and north is each year giving California growers nearer markets 
of growing consumptive capacity. It will be of great advantage to the 
whole country, as well as to California, to have production steadily 
increased. 

Some considerations in this line are given to the closing pages of 
Chapter YI. To fully appreciate the advantage of California in supply- 
ing the whole northern half of the North American continent, especially 
with early fruits and semi-tropical fruits, one should calculate the 
exceedingly small area of suitable fruit land in California as compared 
with the area of the half-continent indicated, which is our logical con- 
suming territory and in which development and population are now 
increasing so rapidly. Take a map of the continent, place your thumb 
over the area of California and gaze at the uncovered area, north of 
the fortieth parallel, if you please, and estimate the duty of California 
in coming decades. Millions will multiply on the continent, but the 
safe area for tender fruits will never increase an acre. From this point 
of view, it really seems impossible for California to create an over- 
supply of fruits which are distinctively her province to grow. There 
are likely to be temporary surpluses and problems in distribution, but 
a general oversupply seems unreasonable. 



362 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

The development of the orange industry in Cahfornia to utilize the 
splendid natural adaptations which have been discussed, to make good 
the large investments which have been made, and to afford a field for 
the profitable employment of the high quality of American citizenship 
which has entered the list of producers, several things are essential. 
First, the advancement of horticulture art and science. Second, the 
maintenance for a time at least, of a sufficient protective tariff, as has 
already been suggested. Third, the extension of co-operative handling 
and distribution of the product as now embodied in the successful 
operation of the California Fruit Growers' Exchange and its auxiliaries 
in all the producing districts. Fourth, the pursuit of systematic and 
intelligent inquiry and experiments into the durability of the fruit in 
transit as affected by cultural and commercial practices, and the 
reformation of policies and methods in accordance with the results of 
such investigation as conducted by Mr. G. Harold Powell, formerly of 
the United States Department of Agriculture and his associates. Every 
grower of oranges should familiarize himself with this work.* 



SOILS AND SITUATIONS FOR THE ORANGE 

While citrus conditions do exist through large areas of California, 
there is still danger of loss and disappointment through unwary indi- 
vidual investments and unwise locations of citrus colony enterprises. 
The tracts of land for orange planting even in a favorable citrus climate 
are limited in area and every citrus climate has numerous places where 
local meteorological conditions will prove destructive to the profit of 
the enterprise, if not to the life of the trees. The orange is a hardy 
tree, judged within its temperature limits, but there is no money in a 
tree which is subjected to any kind of hardship. For this reason the 
selection of a good depth of strong, free loam should be made, for such 
is essential not only to good growth of the young tree, but to its 
support through the long productive life which the orange enjoys. 
Depth of good soil is not only a storehouse of plant food, which will 
postpone the use of purchased fertilizers, but it is a reservoir of water 
so that irrigation can be applied in larger amounts at longer intervals. 
While it is quite possible to grow an orange tree and to secure good 
fruit on shallower soils, if conditions are kept just right by frequent 
use of water and fertilizers in just the right amounts, such conditions 
impose heavy burdens in their constant requirements of extra care 
and expenditure, and these are handicaps of no small economic import- 
ance. The tree can not live upon climate as a man may, because a 
tree can not speculate ; it must have a good foundation in the earth as 
well as a good outlook in the sky. 

Growing orange trees on defective soils has brought disappointment 
and loss in all parts of California. Ample supplies of irrigation water 
available have encouraged over-irrigation where trees have been planted 
above hardpan, and drainage is absent. Dying-back and yellow leaf 

*"The Decay of Oranges While in Transit from California," by G. Harold Powell, 
Pomologist in charee of Fruit Transportation and Storapre. Bulletin 123, Bureau of Plant 
Industry, U. S. Dept .of Agr., Washington, D. C, 1908. 



REQUIREMENTS OF CITRUS FRUITS 363 

have appeared iti some groves and have been accounted for by digging 
to find the roots bedded in mud and skish. All plantings over clay sub- 
soils should be guarded against this danger. Digging deep holes and 
filling them with good soil is setting a trap for the future failure of the 
tree unless the deep hole is properly drained by the nature of the sub- 
soil or by artificial provision. On the other hand, planting over a 
gravelly sub-soil is often disappointing, because the water passes 
through the sub-soil as through a sieve and the tree shows distress 
although generous amounts are applied to the surface. Wide observa- 
tion through the State teaches that such warnings are needed by the 
unwary. There has also been injury to the trees from planting over 
sub-soils carrying excess of lime. 

Local temperature conditions even in sections generally suited to 
orange culture should be carefully ascertained. Frosty places must be 
avoided. A few feet difference in elevation may change profit to loss, 
but one must not therefore draw the hasty conclusion that all small 
elevations are favorable. The experience of the last few years shows 
that nothing is, on the whole, more dangerous than the warm bottom 
land in a small elevated valley which seems naturally protected on all 
sides. There are many such places which are far more treacherous than 
the uplands of the broad valleys, which may be considerably lower. 
The benches around the sides of the small valley may be safe and the 
bottom of the same valley dangerous because there is no adequate 
outflow for cold air to the large valley below. Look out for small 
valleys which have divides of crumpled hills where they debouch into 
the main valley. Cold air can be dammed and held back ; consequently 
the low land of a small valley may be worse than lower land in the main 
valley, because in the latter there are air currents which prevent 
accumulation of cold air in particular places. These air movements 
make some plantings on the upper plains of the main valley safe, though 
the whole region may seem to the eye rather flat and low, but, of course, 
broad sinks of the main valley may also be dangerous. Too great 
elevations are to be guarded against. Where one approaches the 
reach-down of mountain temperatures and loses the warming influences 
of the valley mesas, the danger line is at hand. 

An ample water supply is essential. Small waterings which may 
bring satisfactory growth to a young tree are no measure of the needs 
of a bearing tree. The orange is using water all the year, as discussed 
in Chapter XV. Its crop requires nearly a year to reach maturity. 
Both in leaf growth and fruit growth it nearly doubles the activity 
of the deciduous tree and all the time it is pumping water with its 
roots and pouring forth w-ater into the air through its exposed surfaces. 
No investment in orange planting can be profitable without assurance 
of adequate water supply. 

PROPAGATION OF THE ORANGE 

The orange is grown from cuttings, layers and seeds. Growth from 
the seeds is the method almost exclusively followed, and by far the best, 
but the others will be mentioned briefly. 



364 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

Growth from Cuttings. — The method of propagation is described 
in Chapter VIII. 

Growth from Layers. — The orange roots readily by layering, the 
drooping branches being partly cut through, buried in the soil with 
the terminal shoots above the ground. Layers must be kept moist. 
Layering may be employed to obtain a few plants easily, but, other- 
wise, it cuts no figure in propagation. Layers and cuttings, of course, 
reproduce the original variety without recourse to budding. 

Growth from Seed. — The orange is grown upon seedlings of the 
bitter orange or orange of Seville, generally called "Florida sour stock" ; 
of the common or sweet orange and of the pomelo or Grape Fruit. 
Good plump seed should be selected in growing orange seedlings either 
for their own fruitage or to use as stocks for budding. 

When seedlings for fruiting are grown, select seed from a choice 
variety in a situation where other citrus species are not grown ; but the 
orange can not be trusted to come true from seed, and, more than this, 
the seedling class for fruiting purposes has been practically abandoned 
as unprofitable to plant, though fruit from old seedling trees is occa- 
sionally sold at a profit. 

In securing seed the fruit is allowed to rot and when thoroughly 
decayed, it is pulped by mashing in a barrel, and the mass is washed, 
a little at a time, on a coarse sieve, the pulp passing through, and the 
seed being caught on the wires, and pieces of skin thrown out. The 
plump seed will sink if thrown into water, and the imperfect can be 
skimmed from the top. The seed should never be allowed to dry, and 
unless it is to be sown at once, should be stored by mixing with moist 
sand, from which it can be afterwards removed by sifting; or it can 
be kept for a time in water, changing the water from time to time to 
prevent souring. The best time for sowing orange seed is after the 
ground has become warm in the spring. 

Orange seedlings are grown either in boxes or in the open ground. 
In either case a rich sandy loam which will not bake should be secured 
or artificially made by mixing sand with rich garden loam. Boxes of 
about two square feet area and six inches deep are convenient to handle. 
The bottom should have holes, or sufficient crevices for good drainage. 
Fill the boxes about four inches with the prepared soil, place the seeds 
about an inch and a half apart each way, sift over them about an inch 
of the soil, or a little less of the soil, and a layer of clear sand if it is at 
hand. It is essential that the soil should be kept moist, and light 
sprinkling daily, or every other day, with water that has been 
warmed by standing in the sun, is desirable. Seed can be sown in 
boxes in the house at any time if plenty of light and heat are given. 
If the boxes are to be out-of-doors, it is best to sow in the spring, and 
to rig up a cover of cheap cotton cloth, suspended about a foot above 
the surface, to prevent effect of frost at night, and of burning by sun 
heat by day. The seedlings usually appear in about six weeks, and 
with good care in weeding and keeping sufificiently, but not excessively, 
moist, they will make a growth of about a foot the first season. Some 
growers collect the boxes in a sheltered place, and build over them a 



THE CITRUS NURSERY 365 

lath house, tackint:^ on old sacks or other cloth, to shield them from the 
sun and frost. Tlie lath house keeps animals from running over the 
boxes, etc. 

Grovvin_^ seedlings in an open bed involves about the saine opera- 
tions. To guard against intrusion, it is advisable to make board sides 
to the bed about a foot high, and to make lath frames which will reach 
across, resting on the edge boards. A cloth sun-and-frost shade is 
also desirable, to be laid over the lath frames when it seems needed. 
Beds should be made narrow enough so that one can easily reach half 
way across from each of the long sides for weeding, etc. In open seed 
beds it is usual to broadcast the seed evenly, using about one gallon 
to 200 square feet, which should give about 5000 seedlings. 

The Orange Nursery, — Planting out in nursery is usually done 
after the ground is thoroughly warmed in the spring, and the seed- 
lings are then about a year old. The preparation of nursery ground 
and the planting out of the seedlings can be done as described in 
Chapter VIII. Orange seedlings should, however, be given greater 
distance apart than is usual for deciduous trees, because the orange 
remains longer in the nursery, and because it is often desirable, when 
taking up, to sack the ball of earth embracing the roots. If the roots 
are not to be sacked, about nine inches will do between the plants; 
if to be sacked, the distance should be twelve or fifteen inches. The 
rows should not be too close in the orange nursery. If horse cultiva- 
tion is to be used, at least four feet between the rows should be 
allowed, and even greater distance is desirable. In taking the seedlings 
from the seed beds, a few should be lifted at a time, and their roots 
kept shaded and moist until the ground closes on them in the nursery 
row. To get an even stand in the nursery, small and weak plants 
should be placed by themselves, or set in boxes to take another year 
before going into nursery. 

Young trees in nursery are very liable to frost injury, and it is wise 
to protect them by some sort of a cover during the winter. A frame- 
work covered with cypress brush is often used, the whole being cleared 
away in the spring, to allow of summer cultivation. Cultivation of 
trees in nursery is about the same as with deciduous fruit trees. The 
horse should be used, and the surface kept perfectly pulverized. The 
cultivator should follow irrigation as soon as the soil will admit of it. 
Frequency of irrigation of nursery depends, of course, upon local con- 
ditions. Some give two or three irrigations, by running the water in a 
little trench alongside the rows, at intervals of two wrecks, for a time 
after planting, and then irrigate once a month during the summer. It 
is important that irrigation should not be continued too late into the 
fall, because the young tree should harden its wood before cold weather. 
Nor is it desirable that the growth be too rapid. A good growth of 
sound wood is better than extra size. 

Length of Time in Nursery. — Seedlings are usually budded after 
being one or two years in the nursery, or at two to three years from the 
planting of the seed.* At a convenient time in the winter the lower 
shoots and thorns are removed from the seedlings, so as to leave a 
clear stem of about six inches for the convenience of the budder. 



366 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Intensive Work in the Citrus Nursery. — In addition to the fore- 
going general reflections the reader may be interested in a specific 
sketch of pushing a citrus nursery as described by Mr. R. E. Hodges: 

Mr. Allen Dodson, of Los Angeles county, put 17 hay-rack loads of the rottenest 
manure he could find on a sandy space 290x60 feet. This had to be worked and 
reworked to leave no lumps of manure. The sand is necessary to prevent baking. 
Then he planted 8V2 bushels of seed, watered carefully about every other day 
and kept the weeds down for six weeks before they came up. They grew about 
a foot before cold weather came. Around the seedling bed were set upright 
2x4s twenty feet apart and 6 feet out of the ground for head-room. From post 
to post were 1x3 boards on which lath were nailed upright about 1^ inches apart. 
Above these laths is a two-foot open space and then a roof similar to the sides 
but made in 20- foot squares so it may be easily removed. This open space (to 
get head-room) should also be lathed, on the south and west at least, because 
the low winter sun shines directly onto the seedlings and may turn them yellow. 
The shadows under the lath are perpetually moving with the sun so that direct 
light never stays long at a time on a given tree. The movable roof makes it 
easy to set up the outfit on new ground. One year Mr. Dodson sold 185,000 
seedlings from a certain plat and tried it again the next year on the same place, 
getting only 4000 salable ones. He had used only a third as much manure the 
second year, thinking to have some advantage from that applied before. 

BUDDING THE ORANGE 

The orange root is the best foundation for an orange tree, and the 
seedhng sweet orange has been the main reliance. The seedHng of the 
Florida sour orange is now being used almost to the exclusion of other 
stock, for its general hardiness and thrift and to escape gum disease. 
It has not been entirely free, though conceded to be less subject 
to the trouble. Oranges have also been worked upon pomelo seedlings, 
which force a strong growth, root deeply and are satisfactory. Of 
course, many lemon, and recently many pomelo trees, have been worked 
over the orange, but in these cases the orange root was below the 
other wood. All lemon roots are not suitable for the orange. The 
Japanese practice of dwarfing with the citrus trifoliata has never pre- 
vailed in this State. Recently the trifoliata stock has been used to a 
small extent to secure earlier ripening of fruit, and the tree claimed to 
be sufficiently free growing, but the experience favors the other roots 
for standard trees. 

Budding is almost exclusively adopted for working in desirable 
varieties. The best time to bud is about the time the new growth 
starts on the seedling in the spring, though some practice budding in 
midsummer and fall. Good, well-matured buds only should be used ; 
those from both base and tip of the shoots are frequently defective. 
Buds should be taken only from fruiting branches ; not from sterile 
sucker growth, and from trees which are known to bear abundantly 
a good type of fruit. For spring budding, buds can be taken from 
fruiting trees and kept dormant in moist sand in a cool place until 
the seedlings show a sap-flow suitable for budding. 

The method of budding described in Chapter IX is that usually 
employed in budding citrus trees, and the rules for loosening the liga- 
ture, etc., are similar. Midsummer buds are apt to have soft growth 
at the coming of cold weather ; fall buds remain dormant until spring ; 



BUDDING-OVER OLD CITRUS TREES 367 

spring buds start to grow almost immediately, and have the benefit 
of the whole summer season for growth and maturing of wood. 

After the bud has started out well, the top of the stock should be 
removed at a short distance above the bud, and suckers on the old 
stock should be continually looked for and removed. The tender 
shoot of the bud may be protected by tying to the stub, and when the 
growth of the bud has become strong enough to support itself, the old 
stock is smoothly sawn away above the bud and the wound covered 
with liquid grafting wax or paint. 

The care of budded trees in nursery is similar to that of the seed- 
lings of the previous year. If too great a tendency to branch low 
down is observed, the tips of the lower shoots should be pinched, but 
it is not desirable to under-prune much ; the retention of the lower 
branches thickens the stem. Sometimes a very rank growth on the 
bud will need a stake to strengthen it or to protect it from blowing out. 
The intrusion of gophers and other vermin should be resolutely and 
persistently guarded against. 

Working Over Old Trees. — Old orange trees can be transformed 
into improved varieties either by budding or by grafting, as described 
at the close of Chapter IX, though re-working by grafting has been 
almost entirely superseded by budding. The common way to bud over 
an old tree is to cut back part of the branches and force out new shoots, 
the best of which are selected for budding and the others removed. 
Sometimes only a part of the tree is removed at first, and when the 
new buds have grown out on that, the other part is similarly treated. 
Others remove the whole top except a single low branch to maintain 
sap circulation until after the new buds start. 

Recently the practice of budding into old bark has been widely 
adopted as the quickest way to secure a new tree. As with working 
into old bark in other trees, it is necessary to take an older bud and 
a larger, thicker shield of bark behind it, than when budding into 
younger stock. Some remove the wood from the back of the shield, 
but generally it is not done. The following is an outline of practice 
approved by the Redlands Horticultural Club : 

Keep the buds carefully in a damp cloth. Slide the bud upward, al)ovo tlic 
cross section. Bind around the bark, steering clear of the buds proper, a 
wrapping of waxed cloth, already prepared, three-fourths of an inch wide. 
When enough of this has been wrapped about the tree trunk or branch to 
keep the bark and the bud in place, rub the end of the muslin strip with the 
handle of the budding knife, down upon the tnuslin already wound about the 
bark. . This will hold the waxed wrapping firmlv in place. From ten days to 
two weeks after the buds have been inserted, cut off the entire top of the tree, 
above the buds, and cover the stump of trunk or large branch with grafting wax 
— applied hot — with a brush. 

As soon as the wax is put on — and it must be put on as soon as the top 
is sawed off — whitewash the tree, over the waxed cloth, also over the bud, over 
every part of the tree that is left, except the stump ends, to which the hot 
wax has been applied. Immediately the buds will begin to grow. From ten days 
to two weeks after whitewashing take off the nnislin wrap. and. if the work has 
been done carefully in accordance with the above directions. 90 per cent of the 
buds will develop — perhaps more. A prime necessity for this work is a razor- 
sharp budding knife. 



368 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

There is a variation in practice in cutting back the stock above the 
bud. Instead of cutting back at once, heroically, as just described, some 
girdle the branch or cut back part of the top at a distance above the 
bud, cutting down to the bud after it shows good strong growth, tying 
the young growth to the stub at first to protect it. Others insert the 
bud in the fall, cutting back to start the bud after the fruit on the old 
top is gathered. It is very important to watch for suckers below the 
bud and remove, to pinch them back, to make a bunch of leaves. The 
growth from the bud itself often needs pinching to induce low branch- 
ing. Twig-budding can also be used on the orange by the method 
already described for the olive. 

Budding in old trees is best done in the spring, when the sap flow 
is strong, but, as stated, can be done in the fall and the bud allowed to 
lie dormant until spring. 



PLANTING ORANGES IN ORCHARD 

As already stated, orange trees are planted out a greater age than 
deciduous fruit trees. Budded trees are given one or two years' 
growth in nursery and one or two years' growth on the bud, which, 
added to the year in seed bed, makes them three to four years of age 
from the sowing of the seed. Seedlings, to be planted out as such, 
are allowed two years' growth in the nursery, which makes them three 
years old from the seed. For this length of time and the unusual 
care involved in their growth, taking up from nursery and the prepara- 
tion for carriage, orange trees of planting age are of much greater 
cost than deciduous fruit trees. 

Since the growing of seedlings for their fruit has practically ceased, 
the distance between the trees in orchard planting has ranged from 
twenty to twenty-four feet. All the varieties now propagated are quick 
to bear fruit, and if properly shaped will find ample space in these 
distances — the greater distance on the richer soil as a rule. 

Preparation of land for orange planting by deep and thorough cul- 
tivation and laying off to secure straight rows by the square, quincunx, 
and hexagonal methods have been quite fully discussed in Chapter X, 
and Chapter XI has suggestions for planting, many of which are 
applicable to the setting of orange trees. There are, however, special 
methods employed in lifting the orange trees from nursery rows and 
in placing them in permanent position, which will be outlined. 

The orange, in common with other evergreen trees, is exceedingly 
sensitive to exposure of its roots, and for this reason the handling of 
the young trees is very different from that of ordinary orchard trees. 
Three ways are employed for securing this constant moisture of the 
roots, as follows : 

Packing in Wet Straw.^ — As fast as the trees are lifted from the 
nursery ground by digging carefully so as to loosen and secure all the 
roots possible, they are packed in damp and partially rotten straw, 



TRANSPLANTING CITRUS TREES 369 

proper receptacles being at hand so that the roots are not exposed by 
carrying them any distance. In taking up. all roots bruised by the 
spade are cleanly cut witii a sharp knife. The tap-root is cut away at 
a depth of a foot or so from the surface. This use of wet straw, if 
faithfully carried out, will answer well in taking trees short distances 
for planting, but the use of a puddle on the roots before packing in 
damp straw gives additional assurance of success. Large shipments 
of trees have been made by packing roots in damp moss in specially 
made chests holding 100 to 125 trees. These chests have top and 
one side on hinges so that the roots can be thoroughly bedded in the 
moss as filling proceeds. The hinged side and top are then brought 
together and closed with hasp and staple. 

Puddling the Roots. — This method is also used for deciduous 
fruit trees, as mentioned in Chapter XI. It consists in having a thin 
puddling of loamy soil with preponderance of sand rather than of clay, 
into which the roots are dipped as soon as the tree is lifted from the 
nursery. This mixture, which should be about as thick as cream, may 
be made in a hole in the ground, or, better still, in a box or cask large 
enough to allow complete plunging of the roots. As soon as dipped, 
and with all the mud which will adhere, the roots are packed in wet 
straw. If the trees are to remain thus packed for any length of time 
the greatest care must be observed to keep the straw damp, and water 
must be applied gently to avoid washing the puddle from the roots. 

Sacking the Roots with a Ball of Earth. — This is a very satis- 
factory way to move orange trees, and if it is well done, the tree does 
not wilt, and may be moved long distances and handled more freely 
than the puddled roots. To ball and sack trees, dig a trench along one 
side of the row about six inches away from the trees, and about a foot 
and a half deep. By careful digging under each tree from this trench 
the tap-root is reached, and severed by a cut with a sharp spade. The 
side roots are also cut by thrusting the spade down on the three sides 
not opened by the trench. The top earth is carefully removed nearly 
down to the highest lateral roots, and after being sure that the roots 
are severed all around, the tree is lifted out with the ball of earth which 
encloses the remaining roots. This ball is rounded off carefully and 
then placed on a half of a grain sack or other piece of burlap, the 
corners of which are drawn up and tied around the stem of the tree 
with baling rope. It is also an additional surety of safety to allow the 
baling rope to run under and around the ball to aid in holding it 
together. The balled trees must be carefully handled so as not to 
break the ball which would result in tearing to pieces, as well as expos- 
ing, the roots. 

The manner of handling the trees depends somewhat upon the 
character of the nursery soil. Successful balling of course requires a 
certain amount of adhesiveness in the soil. 

One can not be too careful in the handling of orange trees. Though 
they will stand harsh treatment when in permanent place, they must he 
most carefully transplanted. Lifting from the nursery when the soil 



370 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

is too dry, exposure of the roots, or careless planting, will consign the 
tree to a slow, sickly growth, and often kill it outright. 

Cutting Back at Transplanting. — The rule of reducing the top 
to compensate for the loss of roots, is vital in moving orange trees, 
but sometimes cutting back is carried too far and subsequent growth 
is checked rather than promoted. Some growers cut back the young 
trees a little while before lifting them from the nursery. Some take off 
all leaves after planting out, and claim that growth starts sooner and 
more strongly, but it is doubtfull whether defoliation is advisable, except 
in case of wilting, when it is necessary. 

Digging Holes and Setting Trees. — The same considerations 
which require extra care in lifting trees for nursery, rule in putting 
them in permanent place. All authorities on the subject specify excep- 
tional care in preparing the tree holes as a profitable investment on 
the part of the planter. Large and deep holes are commended, provided 
the planting is done in a deep, free soil. Deep holes would be more 
injurious than beneficial in a tight sub-soil, unless drainage were 
furnished, but there are good orange trees now bearing in such places 
— good enough at least to be an ornament and acceptable fruit pro- 
ducers for family use. 

On large-scale planting in deeply prepared soils, holes large enough 
to allow good spreading of the roots are sufficient. Handling the soil 
at planting has been fully described in Chapter XI, and the importance 
of bringing the soil into firm contact with the roots has been urged. 
The use of water in planting citrus fruit trees is especially desirable. 
Trans-planting should be done just as the growth is starting in the late 
spring or early summer, and this is the opening of the dry season and 
rains can not be expected. Therefore, when the roots are arranged and 
the top soil lightly trampled around them, water is run in the hole and 
the earth compacted around the roots by water settling. After the 
water has settled away, the hole is filled and the surface left loose to 
prevent evaporation. 

These instructions apply to the planting out of trees which are 
taken up with long roots and puddled. In planting out balled trees, 
the sack is not removed, but after the tree is embedded in the earth, 
the tying rope is cut. The sack soon decays in the soil. 

Orange trees can be successfully transplanted at diflFerent times 
of the year, but the best time, as just stated, is after the ground gets 
well warmed by the spring sunshine. The date at which this condition 
arrives depends upon locality. Experience seems to indicate that the 
young orange tree is in best condition to transplant just as the new 
growth is starting out, and preferably when it has not grown out more 
than two inches. In setting the tree, it should stand not lower than in 
the nursery. Root injury is sometimes due to deep planting. 

Great care must be taken that transplanted orange trees do not 
become dry after planting. The methods of irrigation are described 
in Chapter XV. Good cultivation should also attend the orange from 
its first planting onward. This subject is fully discussed in Chapter 
XIII. 



STARTING CITRUS TREES IN ORCHARD 371 

PRUNING THE ORANGE 

All the considerations urged in Chapter XII in favor of low-headed 
and strongly branched trees apply to the orange, though the habit of 
the tree in growth and bearing requires different pruning policies. 
The orange tree is more disposed naturally to assume a good form than 
most other trees, and for this reason most experienced growers declare 
their belief in pruning as little as possible. This is unquestionably good 
policy providing attention enough is given to securing a shapely and 
convenient tree, and to overcome the tendency in the young tree to run 
out very long shoots which result in unsymmetrical shoulders with 
hollows beneath them and obviate a weeping habit, which interferes 
with irrigation and cultivation and prevents the development of good 
bearing space above. It is so easy to bring the orange tree into good 
form by a little hard thinking about what shape is desirable and a little 
timely cutting and pinching to secure it. 

It has long been held that the orange tree should assume a com- 
pact wall of foliage. The interior of the tree being considered merely 
the framework to support this and pump sap into it. Recently the 
importance of removing dead wood from the center of the tree is 
being urged, even though the cost is considerable, and a rational thin- 
ning of branches to admit light and air in sufficient amount to secure 
good fruit nearer the center of the tree is also being advocated and 
practiced to some extent. All these progressive tendencies carry the 
orange nearer to the application of the principles of pruning which are 
discussed in detail in Chapter XII, including the rational recourse to 
more severe pruning or cutting back to induce a growth of new and 
stronger wood for subsequent bearing. In other cases cutting back 
of varieties inclined to make a rank wood growth, like the Valencia Late 
to encourage a better supply of fruiting wood, is being advocated. It 
seems clear that there are important ends to be gained by more pruning 
of the orange tree, and by earnest thinking and close observation along 
this line. 

It has been held that it was necessary to prune the young tree to 
quite a high head at first to allow for the natural droop of the branches 
and the result is seen in many young trees with slim stems and um- 
brella-like tops. It is better to develop a stout stem by allowing for a 
time a low growth upon it and then raise it later by removal of the 
lower growth which has done good service and outlived its usefulness. 
By wise under-pruning it is possible not only to secure a shapely and 
convenient tree but also to so train the lower growth that it shall pre- 
sent good, low bearing wood without groveling in the dust. 

Unquestionably the drooping habit of budded orange trees is largely 
due to their treatment. A grower who does not believe in pruning 
allows the branches to extend too far horizontally, and the weight of 
the foliage and the early fruiting brings the branches to the ground, 
T(i relieve the lower branches of the young tree of a part of this weight 
will enable them to assume a better direction, and this slight relief at 
first will prevent much branch-sawing in later years. The young tree 



372 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



as it comes from the nursery usually starts upon an upright course. If 
stopped at about three feet it can be brought along to develop strong 
and well-arranged branches, much as has been described for deciduous 
fruit trees in Chapter XII. The adjacent engraving, Fig. 1, shows a 
young tree in planting condition, stopped at three feet and needing 
only a slight cutting back of the laterals to be ready to begin its orchard 
life. If young trees are transplanted short distances and at the right 
time they do not need so much cutting back as is commonly given them. 
If allowed to grow from the start shown in Fig. 1, pruning only to 




'■-rvu 



Fig. 1. Orange tree at planting 
in orchard. Three feet high 



prevent long branches from running out at random, and removing 
branches which may start strongly from near the base, the tree will 
assume the branch-form shown in Fig. 2 and at from two to three 
years after planting in the orchard. At about this age the removal of 
lower branches begins, as they have served their purpose in shading the 
trunk and bearing the first fruit. These branches are removed one by 
one until, when the tree is five years in the orchard, it has lost all 
branches below the two-foot line except the one branch marked "a" of 
which the upright-growing part will be retained. The higher branches 



DEVELOPING BRANCH-FORM OF ORANGE 



Z7Z 




2. Branch form of orange before 
removing lower branches. 



assume the more horizontal habit, too great out-shooting is repressed 
and at about five years orchard-age the tree attains a height of about 
twelve feet and if of the general form shown in Fig. 3. The next few 
months will bring its foliage to the ground to remain there or to be 
under-trimmed, as the notion of the grower may be. 





Fig. 3. Good form of five-year-old 
orange tree. 



Good form secured by training 



374 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

BUILDING DOWN AND NOT SAGGING DOWN 

It is perfectly feasible and rational to secure a good form of low 
tree without removal of large branches and without relying upon the 
sag of the branches from a high head. It requires rather more watch- 
fulness and attention and study of the subject than some growers desire 
to give, but the results when attained are very satisfactory. The method 
is that of J. H. Reed, of Riverside, and has been followed by him for 
a number of years with his own orchard and others of which he has 
had charge. It will be found readily intelligible with the help of the 
sketches. Mr. Reed would begin with a young nursery tree like that 
already shown in Fig. 1. He does not believe in much cutting back 
before planting providing a fair amount of roots are left in the ball at 
transplanting. If the tree has been properly planted and cared for, it 
will soon begin to put out new growth, usually first along the stem, the 
strongest growth being lowest down. As many of these young branches 
along the stem as are not desired for permanent branches, are rubbed 
off, the earlier the better, at least before woody fiber is deposited in 
them. Mr. Reed rubs off promptly all below a point about two feet 
from the ground, if there is a prospect of getting sufficient good 
branches above that point. If not he saves them down to eight or even 
twelve inches lower if need be. 

Mr. Reed's idea is to build the head along a considerable length of 
the trunk and not have the branches bunched at the top, and this is 
the same idea that is urged in the development of the trunk of the 
deciduous fruit tree in Chapter XII. He finds it impossible to do this 
in the nursery because if it is attempted to form a head 18 or 24 inches 
along the upper portion of the stem instead of one bunched near the 
top of it, the lower branches will appropriate most of the sap and the 
upper portion will not be well developed ; while if this upper story is 
well established in the nursery the lower portion can be built on with- 
out detriment to the upper, if nutriment sufficient for both is furnished. 
Fig. 4 will show approximately the branch-form of the young tree at 
about six months from planting and the shoots with which the building- 
down is begun. The first step is to check the drooping habit. Upon 
this point Mr, Reed says : 

The common notion that the branch of the Navel orange naturally tends 
down is a mistake which grows out of the fact that in its rapid growth the new 
part of the stems and large leaves are so loaded with sap that they pull the stems 
from their natural upright position, and, unless relieved, hold them there till the 
deposit of woody fiber fixes the branches in the drooping or unnatural position. 
If the tips of these rapidly growing branches, with their heavy leaves be clipped 
at the right time, the branches will spring back to the erect position, where they 
will remain to send out new branchlets. It is wonderful how the orange tree can 
be molded like a thing of wax by pinching and clipping here and there, if done 
at the right time. 

Fig. 5 shows the result of this clipping of heavy shoots to allow 
them to assume a more upright growth and the encoviragement of new 
shoots below the two-foot mark. Fig. 6 gives the branch form of a 
five-year-old tree, with its lower story of bearing wood well developed, 



DEVELOPING BRANCH-FORM OF ORANGE 



375 




Fig. 4. Branch form of orange six months 
after planting. 




Fig. 5. Tendency of clipped branches to rise 



376 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 



^^ 




Branch form of five-year-old 
tree built down. 



and Fig. 7 is the foliage-form of the same tree, about fifteen feet high, 
with its leaves and fruit reaching to the ground. As to how low the 
branches should be allowed, Mr. Reed says that until recently he has 
thought it best to keep the lower branches clipped back so that the fruit 
would not touch the ground, but he is persuaded that it is better to let 
them come to the ground even if considerable fruit rests on it. He finds 




Foliage form of five-year-old tree. 



that many of the best orchardists do this, and claim that there are really 
less culls among the fruit on the ground than on the less-protected 
branches above. 

Later Pruning of the Orange. — After the form of the orange is 
well established the aim should be to preserve a compact, symmetrical 
and convenient form. It is desirable that weak wood should be re- 



PRUNING BELfVRING-ORANGE TREES V17 

moved ; dead interior branches, which have given up the struggle for 
the hght. should also be removed. It is an appalling undertaking to 
get into the inside of an old orange tree and saw off and drag out the 
dead wood but. as already stated, the conviction is growing that this 
should be done. Of the growing shoots there is a reasonable amount 
of thinning to be done. The clipping back of ambitious shoots multi- 
plies laterals. There should be a good cover of leaves, but the crowd- 
ing of leaves on leaves excludes light and air and weakens the tree by 
lessening the vigor of leaf action. Dead twigs which appear among 
good bearing shoots should always be removed. 

The gourmand shoots or suckers should be repressed, unless, by 
clipping, one can be turned into a branch where a branch is needed. 
The importance of resolutely removing sucker growths even from trees 
in which the wood may have become hardened is being recognized as 
a fixed policy in pruning. Good trees have been diverted from bearing 
fruit of good type to that which is in all respects inferior, by allowing 
supremacy to sucker-growths. Growth of new fruit wood from old 
is desirable, but suckers from stem or main branches, showing the 
marks of wild growth should be extirpated.* 



PRUNING FROZEN TREES 

The widespread freezing of citrus trees which occurred in January, 
1913, demonstrated that the orange tree is hardier against a drop of 
the mercury to 12 or 15 degrees Fahr. than any Californian supposed. 
\^ery few trees were seriously frozen, though very many lost good 
fruiting wood, even with the temperature lower than has been experi- 
enced for sixty years, and the crop being gathered in 1914 demonstrates 
the quick recovery of the trees. Policies in the pruning of frozen trees 
and in treatment of rare injuries like bark-splitting, are being carefully 
studied through field studies and actual tests, by the citrus experts of 
the California Experiment Station, and popular instruction will appear 
in due time through that channel, even though the occasion for the use 
of it may not recur for half a century. 



DISE./\SES OF THE ORANGE 

The orange is thus far subject to few diseases in California. The 
most grievous is the so-called gum disease, which is analogous to the 
gumming of other trees and will be discussed in the chapter treating 
of tree diseases. Cracking of the fruit is a trouble which has never been 
fully explained. 

There are several serious insect enemies of the orange, which will be 
discussed in the chapter on that subject. The "black smut," which 
makes leaves and fruit unsightly in some parts of the State, is a fungoid 
growth upon the exudations of insects, and can be prevented by remov- 
ing its cause. 

•Detailed discussions of the subject are given in the Pacific Rural Press. January 17 
and March 14, 1914. 



378 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

VARIETIES OF THE ORANGE 

Though many varieties of the orange have been introduced in Cali- 
fornia, but few are largely grown. During the last fifteen years there 
has been a pervading disposition to concentrate upon the Washington 
Navel, and, except to get other varieties either earlier or later to extend 
the season, there seems little reason to go beyond the Navel for com- 
mercial purposes. Not only have recent plantings been predominantly 
of this variety, but old trees of other kinds have been very largely 
budded over to it, and this work is still going on at a rapid rate. 

As already claimed in the opening pages of this chapter, the Wash- 
ington Navel is the greatest commercial orange in the world. As it 
goes from California into the world's commerce it is a combined 
product of grower's skill and climatic conditions operating upon its own 
natural qualities and characters. Neither of these factors alone could 
achieve its present position. The navel mark is neither peculiar to it 
nor determinative of it, for there are other navels which are inferior 
here and our navel is inferior elsewhere ; and even in Bahia, whence it 
came, it has no such quality and standing, because in coming to Cali- 
fornia it passed from humid, tropical to arid, semi-tropical environ- 
ment. As already suggested, the tropical orange is not in the same 
class with the semi-tropical from the point of view of commerce. Trade 
in tropical oranges is local or limited ; trade in semi-tropical oranges 
is world-reaching. The orange produced in an arid, semi-tropical 
climate is dense and compact, firm and better in keeping and carrying 
characters. It is also of more sprightly flavor and richer composition, 
as shown earlier in this chapter. Such an orange, enclosed in a thin 
skin of silky texture and beautiful finish, comes very close to an ideal 
upon which to found an industry. 

Although California has apparently no need for changes of type in 
oranges and has worked diligently and long for the attainment of the 
types which are at present supreme in her industry, there is still oppor- 
tunity for improvement within the types. Such improvement is prob- 
ably to be attained not by hybridizing, but by selection. The Washing- 
ton Navel, like other members of the citrus family, is keenly disposed 
to variation and some of its variations have been named and propa- 
gated as the lists below will show, but variations appear as degradations 
as well as improvements. The pursuit of such and other improvements, 
and their opposites also, is now being systematically taken up at the 
Citrus Experiment Station at Riverside which is a branch of the Uni- 
versity of California Experiment Station at Berkeley, and by the 
Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States Department of Agri- 
culture. Preliminary publications by Mr. A. D. Shamel in the Reports 
of the California Fruit Growers' Convention for 1911 and 1912, are of 
deep interest and can be had from the California State Commissioner 
of Horticulture, Sacramento. 

Relative Importance of Orange Varieties. — The relative import- 
ance of the orange varieties grown in California, and the shipping sea- 
son of each, are indicated by the Citrus Protective League as follows : 
Washington Navels, 27,000 carloads in November and December from 



POPULAR ORANGKS IN CALIFORNIA 379 

northern and central California and from December to June in south- 
ern California; V'alencias, 8.500 carloads, from June to October in- 
clusive; Seedlinj^^s. 1,000 carloads, from March to July inclusive; Medi- 
terranean Sweets. 2.000 carloads, from March to July inclusive. Other 
varieties, including St. Michaels, Thompson Improved Navel, Ruby 
Blood, Malta Blood, Jaffa, Tangerines and Navelencias, comprise about 
1.500 carloads. 

DESCRIPTIONS OF VARIETIES 

IVashin^ton Navel (Bahia, Riverside Navel). — Fruit large, solid, and heavy; 
skin smooth and of a very fine texture; very juicy; high flavored, with melting 
pulp; is practically seedless, only in exceptional cases are seed found; tree is a 
good and prolific bearer, medium tiiorny, a rapid grower, although it does not 
attain a very large size ; bears when very young, commencing to bear as early as 
one year old from the bud ; ripens early. This variety was imported from Bahia, 
Brazil, in 1870. by Mr. W. Sanders, of the Department of Agriculture at Washing- 
ton, and in 1874 two trees were received from Washington by Mrs. Tibbetts. of 
Riverside, Cal. Trees were also received about the same time by Alexander 
Craw, but the Riverside trees were first in fruit, and the excellence of the variety 
being at once recognized, it was propagated rapidly and took the name Riverside 
Navel from the place where its characteristics were first made known. As it 
came to be grown largely in other districts as well, a broader name, Washington 
Navel, recognizing its receipt from the national capital, was adopted. 

There is much tendency to variation in the Washington Navel, and sub- 
varieties are to be found involving departures in the direction of thinness and 
silkiness of rind, etc., as well as interior characters. The first to become promi- 
nent of these is Thomson's Improved Navel with A. C. Thomson, of Duarte, 
Los Angeles county, claimed to have produced by a process of propagation, but 
which is believed to be a natural variation. It is a very refined fruit ; generally 
held to be too fine for ordinary handling, and not otherwise superior to the 
Washington Navel. 

Golden Buckeye Navel. — Introduced by Mr. R. M. Teague, San Dimas. Young 
wood, slender but strong; tree of striking appearance; fruit marked with bands 
of deeper color, skin very smooth ; pulp aromatic with suggestion of pineapple 
flavor. 

Golden Nu^^f^et Navel. — Also by R. M. Teague. Young wood w-illowy and 
slender, tree umbrageous ; fruit smooth, solid, thin-skinned, rather oblong and 
good size, rich golden color ; pulp free from rag, and delicious ; said to average 
larger than common Washington and to be very promising. 

Navclencia. — Another navel variation held to be a cross with Valencia by 
Thomson. Resembling Navel but more drawn out at the stem end. Large, 
handsome and later than Navel. Growing in favor. 

Australian Navel. — .\ coarser type of the Navel introduced from Australia 
in 1874 by Lewis Wolfskill. of Los Angeles, and largely propagated formerly. 
It has now been practically abandoned for the Washington Navel. It seems 
to be of more account at some points in the San Joaquin Valley than elsewhere. 
Recently held to be undistinguishable from inferior types produced by sucker 
growths on Washington Navel trees. 

Jaffa. — A variety introduced in early years but largely discarded. It has 
been recently propagated in the San Joaquin district, where it has shown 
desirable characters. Resembles Valencia Late but is earlier in ripening — 
following the Navel. 

Valencia Late (Hart's Tardiff). — Medium size, oblong, pale yellow; flesh 
rich, deep yellow, sprightly and crisp ; tree a strong grower, slightly thorny. 
Ripens late, and valuable for late shipping. 



380 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Malta Blood. — Fruit small to medium, oval ; flesh fine texture and flavor, 
streaked and mottled w^ith red ; few seeds. The tree is thornless and regular 
and heavy bearer. 

Ruby. — Medium size, roundish ; when ripe often reddened by deep red pulp 
within; juicy and snrightly, often rather acid; tree vigorous, thornless and a 
good bearer. 

Mediterranean Szveet. — Fruit medium to large, pulp and skin of fine texture, 
very solid and few seeds ; ripens late, often not until May or June. The tree 
is thornless and of dwarf habit of growth and is inclined to overbear. It was 
at one time the most widely-distributed variety in the State, next to the Wash- 
ington Navel, but has recently been largely budded over. It was introduced and 
named by T. A. Garey, of Los Angeles. 

Paper Rind St. Michael. — Fruit small, round, very firm and very juicy; pale, 
thin skin; very elegant in appearance. It ripens late and keeps well on the 
trees as late as August; tree is of dwarf habit, medium thorny, a good bearer, 
and very desirable. 

Kiimquat {Citrus Japonica) . — Fruit very small, oblong or olive shaped, rind 
thick, yellow, smooth ; sweet-scented ; very little pulp ; containing many seeds ; 
tree dwarf (a bush), a prohfic bearer. Chiefly used for conserves. 

Dancy's Tangerine, or Kid Glove. — Leaves broad, fruit flat, small to medium, 
reddish; skin separating readily from the pulp; flesh juicy and aromatic. 

Satsuma (Unshiu Oonshiu). — A considerable acreage of this variety, planted 
ten years ago on dwarfing stock, has availed very little commercially. At 
present there is disposition to grow the variety on sweet orange stock because 
of its earliness, but this practice has been recently condemned by Florida experi- 
ence, where it is held that it must be grown on the trifolicata root. Tree quite 
hardy, fruit irregular in size, but usually medium size, flattened ; rind easily 
detached; fine texture, sweet and nearly seedless. 

Mandarin, Willow-Leaved. — Medium sized, flattened, deep yellow ; flesh dark 
orange, skin loose ; tree compact, ornamental. 

King. — Of the Mandarin class ; large, rough skinned, skin and segments 
loose, pulp high flavored, sweet, aromatic. 



STANDARD PACK FOR CITRUS FRUITS 

A standard orange box in California is 12 x 12 x 26 inches outside 
measurements with a fruit space 11)4 x 11^ x24 inches, and its weight 
is usually estimated at 72 pounds. A standard Cahfornia lemon box 
is 10^ X 14 X 27 inches outside measurements, divided also into two 
compartments. Pomelos are packed in the orange box, while the 
Tangerines, Mandarins and other kid glove varieties are packed in 
half boxes of the orange size, two of which are cleated together for 
shipment. In rare instances they are packed in quarter boxes, four 
being cleated together. 

A carload of packed oranges varies some in number of boxes in 
keeping with the size of the car. A 36-foot car will take 336 boxes, 
the 40'-foot car 384, and the 42-foot 408. In lemons the 36-foot car 
will take 288 boxes, the 40-foot car 312, and the 42-foot car ZZ6. When 
packed the boxes are placed on end two tiers high and six rows wide, 
with a space for ventilation between each and every box, made feasible 
by nailing small strips of lumber of sufficient strength crosswise of the 
car. 

In oranges the regular sizes are 126, 150, 176, 200, 216; small 
"ofif-sizes" 250, 324, 360; large "oflP-sizes" 64, 80, 96, 112. The relative 



UP TO DATE HANDLING OF ORANGES 381 

value of the different sizes in the regular trade is given by Mr. Powell, 
whose excellent publication on the marketing of oranges is cited in 
the chapter on that fruit, in this way: "A car of Washington Navel 
oranges may contain boxes of all sizes. A car is called a "standard 
car" when it contains not more than ten per cent of each of the fol- 
lowing sizes : 96, 112, 250, and not over twenty per cent of the 126 size. 
The remainder of the car may be divided among the 150, 176, 200 and 
216 sizes. If a car is sold to a dealer at a fixed price per box it is usual 
to allow a discount of 25 to 50 cents per box on the excess in the 96, 
112, 126 and 250 sizes, and a discount of 50 cents per box on the 48, 
64, 80, 288, 300, 324, 360 and 420 sizes. The rule concerning the sizes 
in a standard car may vary with the season, with the section and with 
the general size of the fruit taken as a whole. When oranges of either 
the large or small sizes are scarce, they are at a premium, and the pro- 
portion in a car may be raised without discount. 



A CITRUS PACKING HOUSE 

To convey an idea of the systematic handling of citrus fruits in the 
California packing houses, with the advantage of the best architectural 
construction and arrangements and using up-to-date machines and 
processes, is beyond the scope of this treatise. At some future day, no 
doubt, some one will undertake an adequate publication on that subject. 
To give the reader a glimpse of this branch of the citrus industry, the 
following description by Mr. J. F. Adamson of the new plant of the 
Pomona Fruit Growers' Exchange, the second of two large houses 
owned by that association. There being nearly 300 active members, it 
becomes necessary that the fruit be handled with expedition, and at 
the same time with extreme care, the first so that there be no conges- 
tion of of teams, and the second to prevent injury to the fruit : 

The fruit in the field, or picking boxes, is hauled in on spring wagons 
covered from the sun by canvas wagon sheets, and is delivered directly to a 
gravity conveyor, on which the boxes roll without jar to the point where they 
are piled. It is manifestly impossible to regulate the delivery to the rate of 
packing, so the fruit has to be piled as it comes in and taken to! the washer as 
needed. Passing through the washer, the fruit is rinsed off under a spray 
of clean water, and goes directly to the drier, in which it remains for fifteen 
minutes, being moved along under a gentle blast of dry air. At the end of this 
time it is delivered to the sorting table, dry, and without having been handled 
or bumped, except the handling of the boxes from wagon to conveyor, and 
from pile to washer. 

The sorting of fruit must of necessity be a hand job, as after all, there is a 
certain amount of expert human judgment used in the separation of grades 
in fruit or other produce which can not be done by machinery. In the sorting 
table of this house, there is, however, an element of novelty. The fruit comes 
before the sorters on the usual belt, but the similarity ends there. In the 
ordinary sorting system the fruit is carried along in front of the sorters, and 
each man picks off the grades of fruit as the belt moves along. The man at 
the farther end of the belt picks over the fruit left on the belt by the first, 
second, and third or fourth man, making an extremely limited system. In the 
new table, however, the first man has a small table in front, of him to which 
he switches as much fruit as he can handle, and from that table he sorts into 
grades, and the fruit that passes him to the other man has not been picked 



382 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

over, and there is no limit to the men that can be worked without the drawback 
of repetition. 

From: the sorters the fruit goes to the usual sizers, over a complete set of 
automatic weighers. AH grades and culls are weighed and recorded on the 
grower's load check, and the fruit has lost its individuality, being mixed by 
grades, and handled and sold only under those grades and the brands corre- 
spond to them. 

In all this travel the fruit has been guarded from the least bump. No long 
steep inclines are used which would set the fruit in motion that would require 
stopping, but is carried through almost every stage of the proceeding on belts. 

Under the sizers are located the empty packing boxes, fed in from the base- 
ment by conveyors and always handy to the packers. The full boxes are carried 
from the packers by power-conveyor to the nailing presses, where the covers 
are put on the box strapped with steel ready for shipment. 

Fruit that is to be pre-cooled then goes by gravity conveyor to the refriger- 
ator-rooms in the basement, where they are kept for three or four days in a 
cold blast until the temperature of the fruit is lowered to 35 degrees Fahren- 
heit, when it is loaded into the cars by means of a power conveyor. 

This packing house is actuated by one of the latest models of crude- 
oil engines, of 90 horsepower, and costing for fuel about ten cents per 
hour. This power is used to operate a 25-ton refrigerating machine, 
two large fans for air circulation, all the conveyors, and an ice hoist — 
an estimated load of 85 horsepower. The establishment cost over 
$65,000, and is evidence that the citrus-fruit industry has passed from 
temporary expedient to permanence, just as the handling of fruit has 
passed from slipshod methods to a system characterized by the utmost 
care and forethought. 



i 



CHAPTER XXXIII 
THE POMELO OR GRAPE FRUIT IN CALIFORNIA 

This citrus fruit achieved a very sudden interest in California be- 
cause of the prices commanded by Florida pomeloes about twenty years 
ago. When this supply of eastern cities was cut off by the serious frost 
injuries in Florida there arose a passion for planting the trees in Cali- 
fornia, and a considerable acreage was planted, and as the tree is a very 
rapid grower and precocious in fruit-bearing, large shipments were 
made in 1898, but the results were not satisfactory, and since that 
time, although pomeloes sometimes sell to good advantage, the demand 
is on the whole light and irregular. The local consumption of pomeloes 
in California is increasing but does not warrant much acreage. For 
these reasons early plantings have been largely grafted over to the 
orange. 

The fruit is a Shaddock (Citrus dccumana). Varieties have been 
secured of smaller size and of blander flavor than the coarse, sour 
and acrid fruit which is suggested by its name. An effort has been 
made to secure the favorite varieties, and a large list has been planted 
in this State, but the fruit does not command the place at the East 
which was awarded to the Florida product. As a tree the pomelo most 
nearly resembles the orange and its culture is the same. As for varie- 
ties, California experience has been too brief and fitful to demonstrate 
particular value or adaptation in them. Among growers there is no 
wide agreement as to superiority from a commercial point of view. 
Amateurs can find many desirable sorts in our citrus nurseries. 

Mr. A. P. Griffith of Azusa is perhaps the most enthusiastic and 
confident of California growers that the pomelo grown in this State 
will attain wide popularity in the l''^nited States. His grove is now 
seven acres in extent, nearly all of the Nectar variety which is of the 
type which he believes should be grown to win public favor. He con- 
cludes that the market wants a fruit not smaller than 80's and prefers 
them to stop at 64's. A fruit flat-round that will cut up in two halves 
each of which will stand upright on a plate, cut side up, seems especially 
desirable. A fruit that is spherical or pear-shaped is not desired. 
There are several varieties whose similarity in type would seem to 
warrant including all under one name. These, with the addition of 
the seedless, comprise all there is of intrinsic value among California 
pomeloes. If all other varieties not of this type were budded over, and 
thus taken out of the market, Mr. Cu-iffith believes the demand would 
increase. 

Marketing Grape Fruit. — The California problem seems to be 
not only to grow grape fruit acceptable to consumers in distant markets 
but to place the fruit upon those markets when they are not otherwise 
well supplied. Recently better results have been attained by shipping 
during the X'alencia season than earlier. When California growers 

383 



384 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

give as much attention to meeting the demand as they have to the 
orange and the lemon, it is to be expected that the grape fruit will be- 
come commercially more satisfactory. 

Varieties. — The following comprise about the only varieties 
grown in this State. Most growers prefer the Marsh Seedless : 

Nectar. — A Florida seedling, grown at Duarte ; flat-round, heavy ; peel smooth 
and bright, pale-lemon color ; oil cells small and numerous ; flesh dense, firm 
texture, abundant juice, vinous, excellent, bitter-sweet element distinct; few 
seeds and little rag; sizes from 42 to 80 to the box. 

Imperial. — Medium to large, peel very smooth, medium thin and of fine 
texture; little rag, juice abundant, fine aromatic flavor, good keeper and shipper. 
Tree upright and heavy bearer. 

Marsh Seedless. — Medium size, 52 to 64 to the box ; thin rind ; almost entirely 
seedless ; flesh dark and rich, a late keeper and early and abundant bearer. 

Triumph. — Medium size, peel smooth, clear, thin and fine grained ; very juicy, 
heavy and good flavored; juice free from bitterness; very little rag; an early 
and prolific bearer. 




« 



CL. 



o. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 
THE LEMON AND MINOR CITRUS FRUITS 

Lemon growing is a very unique and distinctive branch of Cali- 
fornia liorliculture. which in the present advancement of culture and 
preparation for the market, well illustrates the originality and invention 
which the California fruit grower has displayed in his undertakings. 
Lemon growing in California is old because it rose at the old missions 
in the second century back of us, but successful lemon growing as a 
great industry is new and constantly assuming new phases. For the 
old seedling lemons were bad, and though enterprising growers soon 
learned that fact and set about getting better ones, it took years to 
secure them and to learn how to grow and handle them so that the 
Californian could compete with the Sicilian fruit in the markets of the 
United States. Nor was time the only thing sacrificed — hundreds of 
thousands of dollars were lost before the California grower could put 
upon the market a good lemon, fit to stay good for a sufficient length 
of time. Unprofitable plantings ; expensive curing houses, which did 
not cure well ; countless experiments which yielded only loss and dis- 
appointment — all these are wrecks upon the rock of American lemon 
growing. 

Naturally Californians sought first to know how lemons were grown 
and handled abroad. At cost of great efifort and outlay they learned 
practically nothing that they could do and a great deal that it was not 
necessary to do. Then they assumed a more rational mood — a dispo- 
sition to discern what principles are involved in the problem, and to 
apply them in their own way according to conditions locally prevailing. 
Along this line grand success has been attained by a few masterful 
men conducting large lemon enterprises or smaller undertakings of 
their own. while the mass of lemon planters, for one reason or another, 
have never reaped the reward they expected. On the whole, it may be 
said that lemon growing is a much harder and more exacting enterprise 
than orange growing, and for this reason many have new-topped their 
trees to oranges and thus escape difficulties which they could not over- 
come. 

With the aid of the protective tariff the most resolute and capable 
have attained success, and the California lemon became known and 
highly esteemed upon its merits everywhere. The tariff has somewhat 
reduced the effect of cheap labor in Italy and cheap water transporta- 
tion from the Mediterranean region, and our lemons could sometimes 
compete with the foreign product not only in the west but even in the 
cities of the .Atlantic seaboard. All this has been accomplished within 
two decades and it is a notable result. One measure of this fact may be 
found in the shipment of over six thousand seven hundred carloads 
during the season of V^IO-IL The California lemon has, however, not 
yet attained .such mastery of American markets as the orange has, for 
there is a value of about six and one-half millions of dollars in imported 
385 



386 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

lemons, while imported oranges are only worth one-twenty-fifth as 
much. The California contention that the lemon should be encouraged 
with increased protection to enable producers to push the issue of an 
American lemon for Americans to a successful termination, was re- 
jected by the tariff of 1913. In 1914 the future of the California lemon 
is not clear. The product of 1913 was reduced by frost to the figures of 
a decade ago, though in 1911 it was four times as great. The exact 
figures are given at the opening of Chapter XXXII. Whether the 
lemon can weather the storms of all kinds which have arisen remains 
to be demonstrated. 

The best pack of California lemons has a uniformity of size, a finish 
of skin, a juiciness and keen acidity which is unrivaled in the world. 
Numerous careful tests have been made of the California lemon in 
Atlantic cities in comparison with the best south European product, 
and the superiority of the American fruit has thus been demonstrated. 



SITUATIONS AND SOILS FOR THE LEMON 

The lemon does best in a practically frostless situation. Such places 
are found in largest area in the southern half of the coast regions of 
California, but also exist at favoring elevations in the interior. The 
moderating influence of proximity to salt water, and the effect of local 
topography and environment, which give frost-free nooks or belts, are 
elements favoring the lemon grower. In such situations the lemon 
blooms and fruits continuously throughout the year. 

While the lemon requires a less extreme of low temperature than 
the orange, it also thrives with a less extreme of high temperature and 
less duration of it. It apparently does not require as much heat to 
develop acid, which is the charm of the lemon, as it does sugar, which 
is essential to an acceptable orange ; therefore, a coast situation which 
may not yield a sweet orange may produce a good lemon, although it 
is a fact that in the southern coast region, where the largest commer- 
cial production of lemons is now achieved, the orange also does well. 
Another advantage of the lower summer temperature is that the con- 
tinuous ripening is not interfered with, as it is by high summer heat, 
which hastens maturity and brings the mass of the fruit to marketable 
condition in the winter — a season when the demand for the lemon is 
very small. This objection is, however, being measurably overcome 
by the proper storage and treatment of the fruit for sale, at a consider- 
able interval after picking, as will be mentioned presently. But both 
the curing and storage of lemons are more easily secured in the more 
equable temperature and moister air of the coast region. 

The lemon delights in a sandy loam, and probably our best orchards 
are on such soil, but the trees thrive in other soils. There is a differ- 
ence of opinion among growers as to what soil is to be especially sought 
for. There are profitable lemon orchards in southern California located 
upon deep clay loams, and even upon strong red clay soils. As with 
some other fruits, the choice of soil is, to a certain extent, governed 
by the stock on which the lemon is worked. 



GROWING OF THE LEMON TREE 387 

PROPAGATING AND PLANTING 

The prevailing stock for the lemon is the orange seedling, either 
the sweet or sour stock, under the same conditions that each is preferred 
for the orange, the sour stock resisting measurably the effects of ill- 
drainage of heavy land or flat, low places. The orange root thrives on 
a greater variety of soils than the lemon, and produces a healthy lemon 
tree where the lemon on its own root would fail. The growth of orange 
seedlings for budding has been described in the last chapter. If lemon 
seedlings are desired they may be grown in the same way. Plants 
either for permanent growth or for stocks for budding can be grown 
from cuttings, as explained in Chapter VIII. The budding of the 
lemon is practically the saine as of the orange, which has been described. 
An old tree can be changed from one variety to another by the methods 
described for the orange, and oranges can be worked into old lemon 
trees and good fruit secured if the lemon itself be growing upon an 
orange root, which is likely to be the case with trees planted during the 
last decade. 

Planting of the lemon is the same as that of the orange. The dis- 
tance in planting varies from twenty to twenty-five feet. Irrigation of 
lemon and orange trees is also similar. 



PRUNING THE LEMON 

The pruning of the lemon is essentially different from that of the 
orange, because the habit of the tree is different. The lemon requires 
constant attention to bring it into good bearing form and keep it there ; 
the orange, after it is well shaped, simply needs attention to encourage 
it to retain the bearing form to which it seems naturally disposed. The 
orange provides itself with satisfactory bearing wood, as a rule ; the 
lemon devotes itself, even when it is old enough to know better, to a 
rangy rambling wood growth with bearing wood upon the ends of 
willowy rods where it is swept about in the wind and burned in the sun, 
instead of nestling it neatly among the leaves as the orange does. 

The rational proceeding with the lemon is, then, to develop it at first 
into a low, stocky and strong form, such as is described in Chapter XII 
for deciduous tree. This may be secured by pinching so as not to allow 
running out of long branches at first, or it may be secured by severe 
cutting back of the long growths of the young tree. In either case low 
branches will be secured. Make good selection from these branches to 
form a symmetrical tree and cut back the growth which comes upon 
them to cause it to branch in its turn. In this way plenty of good, 
strong wood is secured low down, and with short distances between the 
laterals. Strong, upright shoots (wrongly called "suckers") which 
break out at points where branches are not desired, should be rubbed 
off or cleanly cut away. Having secured about the right branching in 
about the right places no strong sprouts should be allowed, and the 
tree should be encouraged to make smaller laterals, which will be the 
bearing wood. It must be admitted, however, that this rational plan of 
restricting wood gro\\'th and directing the energies of the tree to fruit 



388 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

has in some cases been pursued too far and the tree has resented repres- 
sion by diminished thrift. The pruner must allow freer growth of shoot 
to secure better foliage. The pruning of the lemon as of other trees 
must always be pursued with judgment rather than by recipe. 

When the adequate growth of bearing wood within reach is borne 
in mind it appears that the pruning of the lemon involves many of the 
considerations urged in Chapter XII for deciduous fruits ; the method 
of making a strong, short trunk, the arrangement of branches, the pre- 
vention of long growths, the encouragement of low, bearing twigs, the 
thinning of twigs to prevent the tree from becoming too dense, the 
points to be observed in cutting back, not by shearing but by treating 
each branch according to its position and vigor — all these must be borne 
in mind by the lemon pruner. It must also be remembered that the 
work must be resolutely continued and the tree always prevented from 
wild growth and kept down to bearing on the smaller twigs, which are 
promoted and retained for that purpose. The building-down process 
described for the young orange is easily applicable to the lemon. 

Old lemon trees which have been allowed to grow away into a long, 
rangy form and to bear fruit too high for profit, can be brought down 
to good form by severe cutting back and after-treatment of the new 
shoots, keeping the smaller horizontal growths and cutting out cleanly 
the strong upright shoots, or cutting them back if more branches are 
needed. The time for pruning the lemon depends upon the end in 
view ; if a young tree, to promote wood growth, prune at the opening 
of the growing season in the spring; in older trees, to repress growth 
and advance fruiting, prune in midsummer. 

When it is remembered that harvesting lemons is a continuous 
operation as will be stated presently, keeping the bearing wood of the 
tree within easy reach is more imperative from an economic point of 
view than with trees from which fewer pickings gather the crop. 
Adjacent engravings give suggestive views of rationally controlled 
lemon trees. Pruning is also related to preventing infection of the 
fruit with lemon rot fungus spores from the ground. Fruits which 
touch the ground or upon which dirt is splashed by rains is first in- 
fested. The whole question is discussed in Bulletin 190 of the Cali- 
fornia Experiment Station. 



PREPARATION OF LEMONS FOR MARKETING 

The lemon as taken from the tree is not in condition for marketing 
except to packers who wish to undertake the curing. To secure best 
results in quality and in keeping properties, the lemon should be care- 
fully cut from the tree as soon as proper size is reached. To allow the 
fruit to hang upon the tree until lemon color is assumed, gives a lemon 
which is deficient in juice, oversized, apt to develop bitterness, and 
prone to decay. Two and five-sixteenths rings are used for winter 
pickings and 2^^ for spring and summer, never more than six weeks 
being allowed to elapse between pickings, and the fruit is usually 
picked once a month. By careful attention to this, desirable sizes and 
good-keeping stock are obtained. Neglect of this is the weak point of 



PREPARING THE LEMON FOR MARKET 389 

many of the lemon growers of California. Mr. C. C. Teague, manager 
of the Limoncira Company of Santa Paula, Ventura County, the 
largest lemon growing concern in California, has made close examina- 
tion of practice among lemon growers, and concludes that the care- 
lessness with which picking is done is almost criminal. In grove after 
grove which he visited at least 50 per cent, of the values had been lost 
by allowing the fruit to hang on the tree too long. Not only on ac- 
count of large sizes would it have to be discounted 50 cents per box, 
but the keeping quality of the lemon which is allowed to mature on the 
tree is never gt)od. Good results can not be obtained, even by the best 
methods of keeping lemons, unless the fruit is picked at the proper 
time and properly handled. Mr. Teague says a lemon should be 
handled as carefully as an egg. 

If gathered before the color begins to turn properly cured lemons 
may be kept for months, and they will im])rove in market qualities, by a 
thinning antl toughening of the skin, and by increase of juice contents. 
This curing of the fruit, as it is called, is accomplished in many simple 
ways. If the fruit is gathered and placed in piles under the trees, 
where, with low-headed trees, it is completely shaded by the foliage, it 
processes well and comes out beautiful in color and excellent in quality, 
providing it is a good variety. Some have trusted wholly to this open- 
air curing under the trees, merely protecting the fruit by a thin cover- 
ing of straw, or other light, dry materials. Others let the fruit lie a 
few days under the trees, carefully shaded from the sun, and place it in 
boxes or upon trays, and keep it months in a darkened fruit-house, pro- 
viding ventilation but guarding the fruit against draughts of air. 
Gathering the fruit while still green and packing with alternate layers 
of dry sand, has given excellent marketable fruit, but of course the 
handling of so much sand is too expensive nor is it at all necessary. 

Much attention has been given to lemon storage in southern Cali- 
fornia, and many curing and storage houses have been constructed. 
Naturally there is great variation in design and method of operation. 
The essential conditions to be secured are exclusion of light ; regula- 
tion of temperature; ample ventilation, under control, however, so as 
to prevent entrance of air which is too dry or too hot ; convenience and 
cheapness of handling, for the lemon is expensive in handling at best 
during the months of storage which is often desirable. Some of these 
conditions are relatively of much more importance in the interior than 
in the coast region, because heat and dry air reach occasionally ex- 
tremes which are not experienced near the ocean which is a great 
regulator of temperature and atmospheric moisture. For these reasons 
a much simpler system of storage is now in large use in the coast dis- 
trict, while in the interior suitable special buildings or basements are 
apparently necessary. Anyone entering ui)on lemon handling should 
certainly visit establishments now in satisfactory use and learn by 
careful observation of their suitability to his purposes. 

Near the coast, and so far toward the interior as ocean influences 
extend in adequate tlegree, the building of special curing houses has 
been abandoned and some quite expensive structures have been turned 
to other uses. An objection to house-storage lies in the fact that the 



390 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

fruit it is apt to be massed in the house and that which is just picked 
given the same ventilation as that which has been in the house several 
months, when, as a matter of fact, lemons in different stages of curing 
require radically different treatment as regards ventilation. As a result 
of this treatment some of the fruit is usually wilted from receiving too 
much air, while the greater portion of it is badly decayed from receiving 
too little. 

Proper ventilation is the keynote of success in keeping lemons, and 
after extensive and expensive experience along the old lines, Mr. 
Teague of the Limoneira Company, already cited, concluded that lemon 
handlers had been on the wrong track in believing a low temperature 
first in importance. If the ventilation is right the temperature will 
take care of itself. Mr. Teague decided that proper conditions for 
keeping lemons lie just between the points where they wilt and where 
they sweat, indvicing neither if possible, for too much moisture induces 
decay and too little causes shriveling. The fragment of the stem left 
on the fruit by the cutter may be used as a test ; if it adheres, the con- 
ditions are right for slow curing ; if it detaches easily, the best keeping 
quality is not being secured. 

The Limoneira Company was first to equip a house on the open air 
plan. The house is 300 x 100 feet. The flooring is 2-inch planking and 
the roof covered with gravel-paper roofing. The building has no sides 
whatever, allowing free circulation of air. The fruit for storage is 
put into regular shipping boxes, piled in blocks of 560 boxes. There 
is a double row of these blocks on either side of a 20-foot space which 
extends to the entire length of the building, and which answers the 
double purpose of a work room and an air space. The boxes are so 
piled as to permit of the circulation of air around each box. Each 
block of fruit is covered by a canvas 10 x 10x20, made box shape by 
a canvas cover and four canvas curtains on rollers, the openings at the 
corners being closed by lacings as desirable. The ventilation is con- 
trolled by raising or lowering the canvas, and each block of fruit can 
be given exactly the ventilation that it requires, irrespective of the 
other fruit in the house. By this method 50 or 100 cars of fruit can be 
handled and kept in as good condition as if there was only one. Each 
block being numbered, a complete record of the lemons from each of 
the six sections of the ranch is kept from the time it is picked until the 
fruit is shipped. The fruit is all washed in a lemon washing machine, 
and is piled up in the house wet, just as it comes from the machine. 
The canvas covers are not dropped over it, however, until it is thor- 
oughly dry. An idea of these curing tents can be had from an ad- 
jacent engraving which shows them on both sides of a central space 
which is used for packing the fruit in the shipping boxes. 

With proper curing facilities lemons picked in November and De- 
cember may be kept until the following July. Later pickings may not 
keep so well and may be marketed first. Of the finer points in lemon 
handling, however, there is much which must be learned by experience. 

Forced curing of lemons, by which green fruit may be colored in 
about two weeks, is done by burning oil stoves in a closed room. The 
change is effected by the products of combustion and not by the heat 



Till-: LIMI-: IN' CALIFORNIA 391 

alone. The process is described in detail in Bulletin No. 232 of the 
lUireau of Plant Industry of the United States Department or .\f^ricul- 
ture, February 13, 1912. 

VARIETIES OF LEMONS FOR CALIFORNIA 

Durine^ the earlier years of California lemon growing there were 
continuous efforts put forth to secure better lemon varieties. During 
the last decade three varieties have been accepted as satisfactory and 
nearly all others have been dropped. The three are Eureka, Lisbon, and 
Villa Franca, arranged according to present degree of popularity in 
Southern California, where nearly the whole commercial product is 
now made, although some plantings have been undertaken farther 
north, chiefly in the citrus belt on the east side of the San Joacium 
Valley. 

Eureka. — A native of California, originated by C. R. Workman, at Los 
Angeles, from seed imported from Hamburg in 1872, only one seed growing, 
from which buds were put by him on orange stock. Distributed by T. A. 
Garey, of Los Angeles. Tree very free from thorns. Fruit medium size, sweet 
rind, a good keeper, few seeds; very popular, especially in coast regions. Less 
popular in the interior because of scant foliage. 

Lisbon. — Imported from Portugal ; first grown by D. M. Burnham, of River- 
side. Fruit uniformly medium size, rather oblong, fine grain, thin sweet rind, 
strong acid; few seeds; a good keeper; tree is a strong grower, with compact 
foliage, prolific bearer, but starts bearing late; quite thorny, but thorns decrease 
in size as the tree grows older; popular at interior points especially, and Eureka 
trees in the Tulare region are being grafted over to Lisbon. 

Villa Franca. — Imported from Europe. Medium size, oblong, slightly pointed 
at the blossom end, rind thin, without bitterness, acid, strong, juicy, nearly 
seedless. Tree thornless, branches spreading and somewhat drooping, foliag'- 
abundant ; withstands lower temperature than other imported varieties. 



THE LIME 

The lime (Citrus mcdica acida) has proved much less hardy than 
the lemon. It has been killed in situations where the orange and lemon 
have not been injured. Unless adequate protection is thought worth 
the effort, there is little use in planting the lime, except in a frostless 
situation. Such localities are found near the ocean in southern Cali- 
fornia, and here and there at proper elevation around the Bay of San 
Francisco and in the interior both north and south ; still the growth of 
the lime must be counted very hazardous. There is less inducement to 
experiment with the fruit from the fact that the Pacific Coast markets 
are well supplied with Mexican limes, usually at prices which leave no 
opportunity for competitors. 

Limes are grown from seed, the variety usually coming true from 
seed. The trees are small and are frequently grown in hedge form. 
The common variety is the Mexican. The Imperial, a large, rather 
hardy variety, is favorably reported by several growers. Bearss Seed- 
less is being successfully and profitably grown by Mr. R. Gallegos at 
the Mission San Jose in Alameda County. 



392 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

THE CITROJ^ 

This fruit (Citrus medica cedra) is little grown in California, 
although it is quite hardy and could be produced over a large area. 
The only use for the fruit, which resembles a monstrous lemon, is in 
its candied rind, and no one has deemed it worth while to push com- 
petition with the imported candied citron, though very fine experi- 
mental lots have been produced, and the interest of the fruit-preserving 
establishments in the product recurs periodically. There have been col- 
lections of citron trees imported from the Mediterranean region by the 
United States Department of Agriculture planted at several points in 
southern California. As yet no considerable product has been reached. 
There is, however, no cessation of interest, and experimental planting 
continues, with a prospect of satisfactory attainment ere long. Samples 
of the candied article have been approved by experts as very satis- 
factory. 

An outline for the preparation of candied citron is as follows : The 
fruit, before assuming a yellow color, and also when bright yellow, is 
picked and placed in barrels filled with brine, and left for at least a 
month. The brine is renewed several times, and the fruit allowed to 
remain in it until required for use, often for a period of four or five 
months. When the citrons are to be candied they are taken from the 
barrels and boiled in fresh water to soften them. They are then cut 
into halves, the seed and pulp are removed, and the fruit is again im- 
mersed in cold water, soon becoming of a greenish color. After this it 
is placed in large earthen jars, covered with hot syrup, and allowed to 
stand about three weeks. During this time the strength of the syrup 
is gradually increased. The fruit is then put into boilers with crystal- 
lized sugar dissolved in a small quantity of water, and cooked ; then 
allowed to cool, and boiled again until it will take up no more sugar. 
It is then dried and packed in wooden boxes. 

ORNAMENTAL CITRUS SPECIES 

There are grown in this State for curiosity or ornament various 
minor citrus species, including the Bergamot and the dwarf ornamental 
sorts from Asia. There are, of course, the ornamental species grown 
by florists for their fragrant bloom. 



CHAPTER XXXV 

MINOR SEMI-TROPICAL FRUITS IN CALIFORNIA 

A number of interesting^ fruits are now grown in this State wliich, 
for one reason or another, have not yet attained any great commercial 
imjiortance. although some of them are rapidly advancing in popular 
esteem and likely to gain much higher place in the markets. Others 
will probably never be grown except for home use and garden orna- 
ment. 

THE BANANA 

The banana has been a favorite plant for experimental culture for 
many years, and though good fruit has been grown at various points 
in the State, the culture is too hazardous to warrant large investment, 
and if this danger was not present, the abundant supplies available 
from the islands of the Pacific would probably reduce the profits to a 
narrow margin. The banana can be trusted only in protected situations 
and in small numbers which can be given special attention. With these 
conditions the banana may yield very acceptable fruit for home use and 
be an ornament to the garden. Its beauty is, however, seriously im- 
paired by winds, which whip its tender leaves into shreds and give the 
plant an unkempt appearance. 

The largest number of bananas are seen in Los Angeles and Santa 
Barbara, and one grower at an elevation near the latter place reports 
his table supplied daily throughout the year with the fruit of the 
Cavendish species, which is the most commonly grown sort. The Yel- 
low Martinique or Yellow Costa Rica, the Orinoco, the Hawaiian Lele, 
Hart's Choice, and a large-fruited variety known in Los Angeles 
County as the Baldwin, are also approved by growers. How to grow 
bananas in the garden, according to the experience of the late S. H. 
Gerrish, of Sacramento, is as follows : 

By experiment I have found that the banana will live — if in a proper soil — 
without injury to the roots, at a temperature as low as sixteen degrees Fahr. ; 
the stalk will stand a temperature of twenty-five degrees without injury, and 
the leaves are not wilted until the air is chilled to thirty degrees. My method 
has been to supply the richest food for this gigantic plant and force it to its 
extreme growth. Every one has old chip dirt, ashes, boots, shoes, clothes, and 
manure, which are often a nuisance. Dig a big hole, bury this up. in the center 
of the mass place a pailful of sand, and plant the fresh bulb. This is to 
preserve the dormant plant from the wire-worms and insects, which will not 
attack the growing plant As the plant grows, give it an abundance of water 
and all the slops of the house. Any kind of manure, fresh or old, ashes, leaves, 
and vegetables will sdbn disappear and be absorbed by this gigantic king of 
plants. As the rainy season approaches, pile all the leaves and twigs of trees 
around the plants. It protects the bulbs and makes the soil rich for next season. 
393 



394 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

THE CHERIMOYER OR PERUVIAN CUSTARD APPLE 

The oldest cherimoyer (Anona chcrimolia) is growing in Santa 
Barbara. The fruit was introduced about fifty years ago, and the parent 
tree has for many years produced abundant fruit in such perfection 
that the seeds have readily germinated, and the trees thus propagated 
have been in successful bearing in several Santa Barbara gardens. 
The leaves are oval and pointed at both ends ; flowers solitary, very 
fragrant, and having a greenish color. Good specimens of the fruit 
are three or four inches in diameter, often heart-shaped, grayish brown 
or nearly black when fully ripe. The flesh, in which thirty or forty 
brown seeds are found, is soft, sweet, and pleasant to the taste, being 
most palatable when near decay. Mr. I. H. Cammack, of Whittier, 
describes the pulp as of the consistency of ice cream or a custard 
flavored with a blending of pineapples and bananas. If it has a fault 
it is too rich. Apparently it has no particular season for ripening, yet 
the best specimens seem to be found in Santa Barbara in April and 
May. The cherimoyer is also found in gardens in San Diego and Los 
Angeles counties. It needs a well-protected situation. The fruit has 
been marketed on a limited scale in Los Angeles, and larger plantations 
have been made, especially in the Cahuenga Valley, near Los Angeles. 
The plant comes true from seed and the tree bears in its fourth year, 
and should have as much room as an orange tree. Mr. C. P. Taft, of 
Orange, points out the fact that much can be gained by selection and 
propagation from the most satisfactory trees, as follows : 

Cherimoyers found in the gardens of southern California are ahnost always 
seedlings, and generally shy bearers. There is but one named variety, so far 
as I am aware, the Golden Russet. This is very prolific and frequently attains 
large size. Specimens above one pound in weight are not uncommon. The 
qualit^^ is as good as any, but is varial)le owin- to the season and time of 
ripening, much cold having a marked deteriorating effect. The normal shape 
is like that of the strawberry, and the variations from the normal are equally 
abundant ; in fact, in this respect the cherimolia is quite extraordinary, as the 
same tree will have on it fully matured fruit from less than an inch in diameter 
up to six or eight inches. In size the tree averages about the same as the 
peach. The market is a good one, large fruit commanding $3 per dozen or 
more, while the smaller ones sell by the pound at a relatively lower price. 



THE CHOCHO OR CHAYOTA* 

The chocho plant is fruiting in Santa Barbara County, for Mr. 
Kinton Stevens, of Montecito, who obtained the seed from Samoa. 
Sechium cdule is the botanical name of this plant, but it is perhaps 
better known as "choco," "chocho," "chayota," and "Portuguese 
squash." It belongs to the order cucurbitacae, and is a perennial vine, 
reseinbling in growth and fruit our summer squash or vegetable mar- 
row. It is a very prolific bearer. Both the fruit and the great yam- 
like tuber are used as food by man and beast in the West Indies, where 
it is considered a wholesome article of diet. The roots often weigh as 
much as twenty pounds. They have a flavor similar to the yam, and 

*.'\n interesting illustrated account of this plant by K. A. Ryerson may be found in the 
University of California Journal of Agriculture, April, 1914. 



THE GUAVA AND ITS USES 395 

are considered a greater delicacy than the fruit, which in a raw state 
resembles the chestnut in flavor, and under favorable conditions weighs 
over three pounds. The proper way to grow them is to plant the whole 
fruit, as they have but one seed, and they produce fruit in three months, 
under favorable conditions. The vine is exceedingly rapid in growth 
and may cover a thousand square feet in one summer. 



THE GUAVA 

Two species of guava have been quite widely tried in this State — 
the strawberry guava {Psidium cattleyanmn) and the lemon guava 
{Psidiitm i^uaxiwa). The former is the hardier, and, in fact, seems to 
be about as hardy as the orange, and it has fruited in widely-separated 
parts of the State ; the latter is quite tender, and is at present only 
grown in favorable places along our southern coast, and even there it 
is found inferior in quality and usefulness to the strawberry guava. 

Mr. C. P. Taft, of Orange, has confidence in the lemon guava 
through the selection of better varieties. It is far larger than the 
Strawberry, and of quite attractive appearance. Sometimes the color 
is almost white, sometimes quite green, and frequently of a bright 
yellow, often with a red check. These variations are only what is 
naturally to be expected from seedlings, and almost no others have yet 
been planted. Mr. Taft has fruited quite a number, perhaps a hundred, 
and finds it to possess qualities which if properly selected and developed 
will cause it to equal the Strawberry guava in hardiness and flavor and 
early ripening. 

Mr. D. W. Coolidge, of Pasadena, president of the California Asso- 
ciation of Nurserymen, at the annual meeting of that body in Fresno, 
November. 1913, gave his judgment of the standing of the guava in 
California as follows: 

The guava is a plant of great value as an ornamental. Its glossy green 
foliage is scarcely less attractive than ••ts large snowy white, jasmine scented 
flowers. While many varieties of the guava are found growing in our section, 
few of them to my mind have anv real value. The strawberry guava tj'oe is 
the hardiest and by all odds the best, and nil that have had opportunity to test 
it agree with me in saying Guava lucidum is the best. This is a yellow straw- 
berry guava of a distinctive flavor, and were it not for the large seeds possessed 
by all guavas would be considered an ideal desert fruit. This particular 
variety, too, is most prodigious in its bearing qualities. I have known a plant 
three years from seed to produce more than a quart of fruit, and we have had 
in our nursery plants eighteen months from the time the seed was placed in 
the ground with a number of fruits on them. The fruits will average an inch 
or more in diameter, always round, and are of a bright lemon color. The 
ordinary strawberry- or red guava is worth while growing for jellies. Another 
desirable strawberry guava is the Guava araca. This in anpearance is similar 
to lucidum. but is much later. While lucidum ripens from September to 
November, I have never known araca to ripen before the middle or last of 
December. This one is the more susceptible to frost. 

The guava grows quite readily from the seed, and grows from cut- 
dngs under glass. ' Tn regions of generous rainfall and on retentive soil 
it does not require irrigation, but it must have sufficient moisture at 
command. A light loam seems best adapted to the shrub. 



396 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

THE FEIJOA 

Along with the guava should be mentioned the Feijoa Sellowiana, 
a member also of the myrtle family. In habits of growth it is much 
the same as the guava and while the foliage is not so handsome, being 
of a generally silver gray effect, the flower is very showy. In May it 
sends forth a great profusion of blossoms, which may be called red, 
white and blue, unless one desires to be perfectly accurate, in which 
case the blue would have to be changed to purple. The petals are un- 
usually thick and fleshy and are very sweet to the taste. The highly 
perfumed fruit, about one and one-half to two inches or more in length, 
comes in November. The flavor is delicious, like the strawberry, but 
lacking the acid. The seeds are very small, almost unnoticeable ; quite 
a contrast in this respect to the guava. F. W. Popenoe, Altadena, Los 
Angeles County, has published an excellent monograph on this fruit. 

Mr. Coolidge gives this appreciative sketch of the plant and fruit: 

For eight years I have been watching a fruit which was introduced sup- 
posedly as a tropical or semitropical fruit, but we find it does not belong 
to this class at all. Fei'oa, comiu'- from Uruguay and Southern Brazil, is a 
fruit of extreme hardiness. I have in mind one plant that has stood a tempera- 
ture of four degrees above zero without any injury whatever. I know of other 
plants growing on the desert that have endured a week's temperature of 115 
degrees without any injury, so we can safely class it as a hardy fruit. So far 
nothing but seedlings have been grown, and these vary greatly as to bearing 
qualities and size of fruits, but there are individual plants growing in our 
section that fruit regularly and produce fruits of a good size. Within a few 
years we will have plants of the feijoa producing fruits on the average as large 
as an ordinary hen's egg. The fruit ripening in December gives it a status 
that no other fruit of its character has. I have kept the fruits in good condi- 
tion for four weeks after picking. It is one of our finest ornaments with its 
grayish green persistent foliage and charming white and red flowers. 



THE GRANADILLA 

The granadilla is the term applied to the edible fruit of a species of 
passion vine {Passiflora eduUs) which is quite hardy, and is growing 
in different parts of the State. The fruit is about the size of a small 
hen's ^g^, purple exterior when ripe, the thin, brittle shell inclosing a 
mass of small seeds covered with a brilliant yellow pulp, mildly acid, 
and of very agreeable flavor. Very good jelly has been made of the 
fruit. Another passion vine with large pink flowers is very widely dis- 
tributed in California, and bears a large, yellowish-brown fruit with 
edible pulp. 

THE JUJUBE 

The jujube {zyziphus jujube), from the fruit of which the delicate 
paste of the confectioner is, or should be, made, was introduced by 
Mr. G. P. Rixford in 1876, and is fruiting regularly and freely in sev- 
eral parts of the State. The plant is easily grown from seed or cuttings. 
The orange-red berries are produced three years from planting, and 
ripen in November and December. They are edible fresh or dried. 
As yet the fruit has not been turned to commercial account. 



LOQUAT AND PERSIMMON 397 

THE LOQUAT 

The loquat (Eriobotrya Japonica) is widely grown in California as 
an ornamental plant, and a small amount of fruit is profitably marketed 
each year. Durinii^ the last twenty years a very marked improvement 
in loquats has been achieved by painstaking effort by Mr. C. P. Taft, of 
Orange, whose experience is freely drawn upon in this chapter. Mr. 
Taft's work has demonstrated that this fruit is susceptible of improve- 
ment in size, flavor, appearance, in bearing habit of the tree, and in 
direction of early and late varieties, and in all these directions not only 
in the line of better fruit, but fruit which commands in the market 
several times the value of the common types. Upon the basis of the 
new varieties the season for the loquat is from February to June, the 
bulk of the crop coming in April and the first half of I\lay. The Ad- 
vance Loquat was the first of the new varieties to attract attention. It 
is very prolific. The fruit is often as much as three inches in length, 
and from one inch to one and one-half inches in diameter ; it beine: of 
a peculiar pear shape. The clusters frequently contain twenty speci- 
mens. Its color is a bright orange yellow when fully ripe, and it should 
never be picked until it is so. The flavor is distinct and very sweet. 
Many compare it to the cherry. If not bruised when handled it will 
keep easily two weeks, growing sweeter by the process, and will eventu- 
ally shrivel up without decay, thus proving itself capable of being 
shipped long distances. Mr. Taft has named the following varieties : 

Blush. — Very large, much like Advance resistant to diseases. 

Advance. — Yellow, pear-shaped, from two to three inches in length, clusters 
very large, very sweet when fully ripe. 

Premier. — Salmon-colored, oval, large, but not as large as the Advance, 
sweet, but peculiar flavor . 

Victor. — Largest, color pink to red, probably the best for canning. 

Pineapple. — Very large, round, immense clusters ; flesh white, skin yellow. 

Commercial. — Very large, pear-shaped, yellow with white flesh. 

THE PERSIMMON 

The persimmon of the southern states {Diospyros Virginiana) was 
introduced into California in early days some time ago, as there are 
trees thirty to forty feet high growing on Rancho Chico. The widely- 
distributed species, however, is the Japanese (Diospyros Kaki), of 
which many varieties are now fruiting in different parts of the State. 
The tree is quite hardy, and fruits freely both along the coast region 
and in the interior. It easily takes the form of a low standard, and 
with its large, glossy leaves during the summer, and its immense, high- 
colored fruit clinging to the twigs after the leaves have fallen, it is a 
striking object in the orchard or in the house garden. 

Persimmons grow readily from seed, but in most cases the improved 
varieties must be reproduced by grafting on seedlings either of the 
Japanese or .Vmerican species. The tree seems to thrive in any fair 
fruit soil, taking v^ry kindly to close soils if well cultivated. The 
amounts of fruit now reaching our markets are increasing and a de- 
mand is found for certain amounts at fair prices, but there is no object 



398 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

now apparent for large increase in production. This fruit, so highly 
esteemed in the Orient and so highly praised by travelers, has not be- 
come as popular as expected on this coast, nor have the great markets 
at the East required more than a carload or two a year so far. Such 
limited shipments have, however, sold well in the large Atlantic coast 
cities, where a considerable number of Orientals have congregated. 
Americans who wish persimmon at all seem to prefer the smaller but 
more piquant Virginia species. 

Recently, however, the local demand has increased because of the 
large numbers of Japanese who are now upon the Pacific Coast and 
a shipping demand for the fruit from Seattle to the Hawaiian Islands 
and other Pacific ports, has arisen. Local sale in San Francisco and 
Los Angeles is profitable in a small way. The removal of astringency 
while the fruit remains firm has been successfully accomplished by 
Mr. George C. Roeding of Fresno, following a Japanese method. It is 
simply to place the fruit in tubs, from which saki, or Japanese "rice 
beer," has been lately removed. The tubs are hermetically sealed, and 
the fruit left in them from eight to ten days. When it is then removed, 
it is found to have altogether lost the puckering power. Mr. Roeding 
says that he used eight large saki tubs, each of which would hold 
twenty-five gallons, and in those treated one thousand pounds of per- 
simmons. 

Perhaps the largest single persimmon-producing proposition in Cali- 
fornia is that of Ira Avery, in Placer County, which is thus described 
by Mr. R. E. Hodges : 

A mile down grade into the American River canyon, protected on all sides by 
magnificent hills, Ira Avery's father-in-law planted Japanese persimmon trees 
in 1876, and three of them are still thrifty and bearing. It was in 1887 that 
Mr. Avery bought the ranch and planted 50 more. In the years since then, 
many persimmons have been planted in whatever nooks of the ranch were 
available until he now has 1500 trees ranging from one to 38 years old. Four 
hundred were planted last snring, and one of these bore fruit the same season, 
the first four or five years, however, all fruit should be picked off. It is during 
this time, too, that all the pruning is done, just to shape the tree. Picking 
begins the middle of September and lasts till December. The fruit is then 
unripe, hard as a green tomato, colored, but not the same as they become later. 
They are wrapped in papers like peaches, and packed in peach boxes, holding 
about 30 lbs. ; the largest size being highest priced. The Tane Nashi variety pays 
best on account of its size and earliness. Seven main varieties are grown and 
shipped, as follows: Tane Nashi, Hachiyu, Hyakume (the most important), 
Maru Kaki, Mikado, and Edoishi. 

Some trees yield over 30 boxes, many are not yet in bearing; the crop in 
1912 was 2200 boxes, in 1913 1500, because the trees bear lighter in alternate 
years. 

New York is the best market, Pittsburg, Philadelphia and Boston being 
good, while the demand is light in the Middle West. Many are sold in San 
Francisco, where the average net in 1913 was $1.08i/ per box, while the net on 
eastern shipments was $1.35. The fruit is too hard to eat even after shipment 
to New York, where it must be stored some time until well ripened. 

THE PINEAPPLE 

Casual experiments with the pineapple in the open air in this State 
have been made for a number of years, the fruit being occasionally 
produced. Most has been accomplished by Mr. J. B. Rapp, of Holly- 



PINEAPPLE AND POMEGRANATE 399 

wood, Los Ang;eles County. Mr. Rapp's place is in the Cahuenga 
\'alley, and in that part of the valley which is famed as frostless, where 
even beans and tomatoes survive winter temperatures. Mr. Rapp set 
out his first twenty-five plants in 1891, and a number of his neij^hbors 
also set out groujjs of plants, but two years finished up all but his. In 
1893 the first of his jilants fruited, but they did not seem to take kindly 
to the situation at first. They grew very slowly and the first fruit only 
weighed half a pound. After setting out his own acclimated plants, 
they have done better each year, and the fruit which Mr. Rapp has sold 
recently has weighed from two to four pounds each. If the strongest 
oflfsets or suckers are planted they bear inside of a year, and Mr. Rapp 
is endeavoring to have his fruit set from May to November, as the fruit 
setting at other times in the year is usually undersized on account of 
the slow growth during the winter and early spring. It seems probable 
that the pineapple resents the dry air of our summer as well as the lack 
of winter heat, and a lath covering and a summer spraying may be 
desirable. It is very doubtful whether the fruit can be profitably grown 
in this State on a commercial scale. 

The pineapple thrives best on a fine sandy loam, but will grow well 
on many soils if well drained and cultivated. The plants can be set 
three by three or four bv five feet, so as to allow cultivation both ways 
while the plants are young. Plants are secured from "suckers," which 
come from the root, from "slips," which grow on the stem just below 
the "apple," and from "crowns," or the tufts of leaves at the top of the 
fruit. Suckers are said to bear in one year, and slips and crowns in 
t\vo years. Strong suckers are best for planting, and they should be set 
out early in the spring as soon as the danger of cold weather is over. 



THE POMEGRANATE 

This fruit {Piniica i:^raiiatH)}i ), famed in literature and art. is grown 
in various parts of the State, and certain amounts are profitably sold. 
The shrub or low tree, in good soil, will reach the height of twenty 
feet. It is a hardy plant, easy of propagation from seed or cutting. 
The beauty of the tree, not taking the fruit into account, has caused it 
to be planted in many gardens. Exposed to the raw sea winds it does 
not bloom well not set with fruit, and is best adapted to the warmer 
regions of the interior, where it is an early and abundant bearer. The 
variety chiefly cultivated is a bright orange color, but there is found a 
large variety of them, varying from almost pure white with a faint 
blush, to dark red. The fruit ripens in the warmer parts of the State, 
north and south, in October. 

Pomegranates for eastern shipment are proving j)rofitable in the 
Porterville district, whence nine carloads were shi])ped in 1913. and 
the i^ackers reported the supply scant of the demand. In that year the 
greater part of the fruit shipped netted about $2.00 for four-basket 
boxes, or at the rate of approximately $75 per ton net to the growers. 
An especial feature was made of fancy packages, which proved accept- 
able to the trade. 



400 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

THE STRAWBERRY TREE 

The Spanish madrono {Arbutus unedo) is now quite widely grown, 
chiefly as an ornamental shrub or tree. The growth is exceedingly 
beautiful if kept free from scale insects, the fruit ranging as it ripens 
through shades of yellow, orange, and deep red, and contrasting beau- 
tifully with the glossy evergreen foliage. The fruit is of pleasant 
flavor. 

MELON SHRUB 

This plant (Solanum Giiatenialense) is a small, half-herbaceous 
shrub from the table-land of Guatemala. The fruit is yellow, splashed 
with violet, somewhat of the shape of the egg-plant, but is usually 
seedless, and is readily propagated from cuttings. There are thriving 
plants in many protected places in the State, and some fruit reaches the 
market, but few seem to like the flavor, which is something like a 
tomato and melon mixed. Its greatest use will probably be for salads. 



THE MELON TREE 

The melon pawpaw (Carica papaya) has been widely introduced 
experimentally in this State, and many situations are found unfitted 
for its growth, but satisfactory fruiting has been secured at several 
places in southern California, especially if protected the first year it 
will stand light frosts afterwards. With Mr. Cammack, at Whittier, 
Los Angeles County, it ripens fruit the third year from the seed — the 
fruit being pleasant to eat as one would a mushroom. The large fig- 
like leaves and the peculiar markings of the trunk make the tree a 
very striking object. 

THE PRICKLY PEAR 

The tuna, or fruit of the cactus (Opiintia vulgaris), is produced in 
nearly all parts of the State except on the mountains. It was one of 
the old mission fruits, and was enjoyed by the early mining population 
until better fruits were available. It is about as large as a medium- 
sized pear, and has a pleasant acid flavor is one succeeds in escaping 
the prickels in getting at the interior of the fruit. The tuna is still a 
commercial article in a small way.* Plants are grown readily from cut- 
tings of the fleshy leaves. 

Quite a distinction must now be made between the foregoing and 
the smooth or spineless fruits which are superior in quality as well as 
unarmed with prickles, and therefore readily handled and eaten. Varie- 
ties more or less innocent in this respect were introduced from the 
Mediterranean region many years ago, and propagated to a limited 
extent. Recently Mr. Luther Burbank of Santa Rosa has undertaken 
special work with the cactus, both for fruiting and forage purposes, 
and has attained remarkable results which are attracting wide attention, 
and upon which producing enterprises are being undertaken. 

*The tuna as food for man, by David Griffiths, Bulletin 116, Bureau of Plant Industry. 



s AVOCADO OR AGUACATE 401 

THE ALLIGATOR PEAR 

The avocado, or Agtiacate of the Mexicans {Per sea gratissima) has 
proved hardy in several districts in the State, north and south. It is 
not hkely that it will be satisfactory without high summer heat and 
freedom from heavy frosts. It is, however, one of the most promising 
of its class of fruits, as it is known to epicures, and its marketing at a 
high price is reasonably assured. Mr. J. C. Harvey, of Los Angeles, 
gives this interesting account of it : 

It is a handsome evergreen tree, and, in the typical form, bears elliptical 
leaves from two and one-half to three inches in width, narrow toward the base, 
and about six inches long. In some varieties the new growth is of a reddish 
brown, ultimately becoming deep green. The fruits are pear-shaped, about the 
size of a Bartlett pear, and contam a single, rather large seed. When ripe, the 
skin, which is much thinner than that of an orange, parts easily from the pulp, 
which is of a moderately firm though buttery consistency, and forms, with lime 
juice or pepper and salt, one of the most delicious salads known to epicures. 
Indeed, the fruit is a perfect mayonnaise in itself. Few persons fail to like it, 
even at first, and in countries where it is common, it is esteemed above all 
other vegetable productions, both by natives and foreigners alike. The pulp is 
quite rich in a bland and most agreeable oil, said to be very nutritious. The 
tree attains a height of from twenty-five to thirty-five feet, and forms a hand- 
some object when liberally cultivated. The tree is a gross feeder. Good- 
sized trees carry a large crop, which, after attaining a certain size, can be picked 
at intervals of a week or two, extending over a period of two or three months, 
the fruits in each instance ripening in a week or ten days after gathering; 
and a very remarkable fact is that the quality or flavor of the last picking 
seems just the same as the first. 

The alligator pear must be considered as one of the most promising 
fruits included in this chapter ; it is now being planted largely and it 
may prove the most profitable of the group. Efforts are in progress for 
improved varieties by selection from fruiting seedlings and propagation 
by budding. 

The seeds may be started in small pots, and shifted before they 
become potbound into small redwood boxes. As the plants attain the 
size of a lead pencil and larger, bud them at any time during the reason 
when the bark will slip and when budwood is obtainable, using care not 
to cut or injure the cambium layer. The bud is tied with wax cloth, 
and trained up as in any other budded tree. As the bud unites, say in 
from two to four weeks (as the case may be) the seedling is partly cut 
back to force out the bud. The strings are left on until the bud starts. 
Care must be taken not to use too much water in growing the young 
trees. 

The literature of the alligator pear is increasing and should be 
consulted.* 

Two general types of avocado are, in 1914, being rather sharply 
contrasted ; the thick-skinned, being advocated as more likely to be 
profitable in California because its covering favors long shipment and 
because it is better known at the east, as the Florida product is of that 

•The Avocado, by G. N. Collins. Bulletin 77, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. 
of Agr. 1907. Consult also Yearbooks of Ihe U. S. Dept. of Agr. for 1905 and 1906. The 
Avocado in Southern California and the Development of the Avocado Industry by F. W. 
Popenoe, Altadena, Los Angeles county. New varieties of the Avocado for California, by 
K. A. Ryerson, University of California Journal of Agriculture, November, 1913. Mr. 
Ryerson gives original descriptions of fourteen varieties which he considers superior for 
commercial planting. 



402 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

type ; the thin-skinned, because of its greater frost resistance. CaHfor- 
nians have still much to learn of this fruit both in its cultural and com- 
mercial aspects. At the California Nurserymen's convention of 1913 
Mr. J. S. Armstrong of Ontario gave the following review of varieties 
now being propagated : 

The thin skinned sorts are much the hardier, some excellent types of which 
are now fruiting with us. The best of these I may mention : The Harman, the 
Ganter, the Northup, the Fowler and the Chappelow. Last winter (1913) young 
trees of these hardy types withstood from live to fifteen degrees of frost without 
serious injury where the trees had been allowed to harden up. One twelve- 
year-old seedling tree in the colder part of the valley withstood a temperature 
of 12 degrees above zero. The ends of the branches were nipped, but the main 
branches were not injured. 

The thick skinned varieties are not as resistant to extremes of heat or cold, 
however, as the former mentioned types, hence are recommended only for 
planting in more favored localities. Among the best known thick-skinned 
varieties are the Taft, Lyon, Wagner, Meserve, and Walker. Of these the Taft 
is undoubtedly the best. It is pear shaped, weighing a pound or over. On Mr. 
C. P. Taft's grounds near Orange the original is a large spreading tree which 
usually bears several hundred fruits annually. 

As there is an uncommonly great variation in the time of blooming 
and also in the period required for the fruit of different types of trees 
to come to maturity, an orchard may be obtained by selection which 
will bear continuously. This is of course very desirable to the con- 
sumer and immaterial to the market grower, as there is plenty of 
demand at all titnes. 



THE WHITE SAPOTA 

There are two old trees in Santa Barbara, one believed to have 
survived from the mission planting in the early part of the last century, 
the other half as old, of the white sapota {Casimiroa edidis). Dr. 
Franceschi commends the tree for every garden. Mr. Harvey of Los 
Angeles describes the sapota as growing with him from seed from 
Vera Cruz as follows : 

This tree endures slight frosts unharmed. It is indigenous in northwest Mex- 
ico and is remarkable among the Aurantiacea, producing green colored flowers, 
and superficially bears little resemblance to an otherwise well-marked order of 
plants. The fruits are the size of apples, and are esteemed in that portion of 
Mexico where it is common ; according to some botanical authorities it is not 
considered altogether wholesome, possessing narcotic properties. The pulp is 
described as possessing a delicious, melting, peach-like taste. 

Mr. Taft reports the sapota as bearing well with him. The tree is 
an exceedingly rapid grower, much after the habit of the walnut, but 
evergreen. In August and September the peach-like fruit, greenish 
yellow, with large seeds shaped life those of an orange, matures well 
and is excellent, this being the normal season for ripening. At other 
times fruit is often found, but is apt to be worthless and even dangerous. 
As it will not ripen well off the trees and must be quite soft when 
eaten, it will never be of much market value. 



OTHER MINOR SEMI-TROPICALS 403 

THE TREE TOMATO 

This plant [Cyphoniandra bctacca) is a native of Central America 
and is of shrubbery habit, growing five or six feet high, with large, 
shining leaves, often a foot long. The flowers are fragrant, of a pale 
flesh color, with yellow stamens, and are followed by fruit the shape 
and size of a duck's egg, at first of a purple tint, but gradually assuming 
a warm, reddish color as it ripens. When ripe the fruit may be used 
raw as a tomato is. If the skin is removed and the fruit stewed with 
sugar, it has a slight sub-acid flavor which is very refreshing. It 
makes a fine jelly. The plants bear the second year from the seed and 
the fruit ripens continuously for several months. The seeds should be 
started just as are those of the common tomato, and the plants set out 
eight or ten feet apart. 

THE KAI APPLE 

This name is applied to the fruit of Abcria Caffra, a native of Natal 
and Kaflfaria, a tall shrub, yielding an edible fruit of a golden yellow 
color, about an inch in diameter. It is commended as a hedge plant, as 
it is densely clothed with strong dry spines. The leaves are small and 
of a rich green hue. The fruit, which is produced freely in the warmer 
parts of the State, is chiefly used for making preserves. 



OTHER FRUITS 

The foregoing enumeration does not include all the exotic fruits 
which have found a place in California soil. There are many more, 
some of which are demonstrating their fitness to add to the graces or 
the gains of our horticultural life. The caricas, carissas, eugenias, 
hovenia, etc., are all gaining places in California gardens. Even the 
more strictly tropical mango, the monstera, sapodilla and the like are 
claiming the attention of amateurs. Of the mango in southern Cali- 
fornia the best account is by F. W. Popenoe, Altadena. 



PART SIX: SMALL FRUITS 



CHAPTER XXXVI 
BERRIES AND CURRANTS IN CALIFORNIA 

In suitable soils and situations, and with proper care and cultivation, 
the small fruits sustain the general reputation of California by the size 
and quality of the product, and by the long-continued and abundant 
fruiting of the plants. Probably nowhere else in the world do small 
fruits better repay generous treatment than in this State, and probably 
nowhere do they sutfer more from neglect. There are parts of the 
State, of course, where some small fruits, left to their own resources, 
thrive and bear abundantly, but, speaking of the State as a whole, the 
price of success is intelligent devotion on the part of the grower. 

There are localities in California which favor almost continuous 
growth and fruiting of some of the small fruits, and it is no fiction to 
say that in such a place one may have raspberries and strawberries 
upon his table every month of the year. Such situations are the thermal 
belts, which are practically frostless, and, by securing favoring moisture 
conditions in the soil and proper varieties of the fruits, the existing 
temperature conditions will produce the results indicated. Though this 
be the case, the profitable growth of small fruits is not, of course, 
restricted to such situations, but the largest commercial enterprises are 
carried on in places where the summer-crop rule prevails, but the bear- 
ing season is much larger than in the eastern States. 

Small fruits for family use may be grown on all fertile soils, and 
therefore they should be produced on every farm. Growing for market 
on a large scale involves considera;tions of suitability of soil and climate, 
ease of cultivation, water supply, and facilities for transportation, which 
will probably occur to any one who gives the matter the thought and 
personal observation of existing small fruit farms, which such an 
important commercial venture should command. 

It is often claimed that soil for small fruits should be deep and rich 
of the types generally called garden soils. There is an advantage in 
this because of amount of plant food and retention of moisture when 
well cultivated, but at the same time shallow soils even when overlying 
hardpan, which may not suit deep rooting trees or garden roots, can 
be profitably used for small fruits if water and fertilizers are intelli- 
gently used. This will be stated more fully in the discussion of the 
strawberry, but the general fact is pertinent to the growth of other 
small fruits also. 

Preparation of soil for small fruits should be most thorough and 
careful. Even more generous work than that commanded in Chapter 
X for trees and vines should be done. It is the more necessary to 
work deeply because subsequent culture of small fruits must be shallow. 

404 



CAI-iroKXIA ULACKRF.RRY GROWING 405 

THE BLACKBERRY 

The blackberry is a great favorite in California markets. It thrives 
in all parts of the State, and the plant is best suited of all small fruits 
to yield generously without irrigation, though it relishes sufficient mois- 
ture and repays it with fruit. There is great difference in practice as to 
supplying water artificially. The growth of cane, and the size and 
appearance of the fruit, will show the observing grower what should 
be the practice in his situation, and the general suggestions as to irriga- 
tion in Chapter X\^ are applicable. There are regions in which blacK- 
berries are irrigated weekly throughout the summer, and others in which 
the berries are gathered from June to November without irrigation. Of 
course, with such wide local variations there can be no general rule for 
practice. Let the grower simply bear in mind that if he does not get 
good, plump, and glistening fruit and good strong growth of new canes 
at the same time, he should give irrigation. The requirements of the 
plant during the fruiting season are great, and they must be met. Many 
failures are due to lack of irrigation when needed. 

Propagation. — Blackberry plants are secured by digging up the 
shoots which come late in the summer from old stools ; securing there- 
with a bunch of fibrous roots with a portion of the main root three or 
four inches long. To propagate on a large scale dig up the roots 
entirely, and, cutting them up with pruning shears into pieces about 
two inches long, plant them in a well-prepared bed in the garden or 
nursery. Place the root cuttings about two inches apart and cover 
about three inches deep with well-pulverized soil, the depth being 
regulated, of course, according to the nature of the soil, deeper in light 
than heavy soils. A light mulch will assist in retaining moisture. The 
time for this work is at the dormant period of the plant. One summer's 
growth gives good plants for setting out. 

The Mammoth and Crandall are propagated by rooting tips of 
canes. 

Planting out Blackberries. — Blackberries should be planted in 
rows far enough apart to admit of the use of the horse and cultivator. 
As the constant tendency of the plant is to extend itself in the growth 
of new canes, the rows should not be less than six to eight feet part, 
and the plants about three feet apart in the row. The plants soon 
occupy the full space in the row, and cultivation is only possible between 
the rows. Some growers plant blackberries as they do grapevines, 
seven or eight feet apart both ways, and then cultivate with the horse 
both ways. Planting in rows is usually thought better. The number 
of plants to fill an acre at different distances can be calculated as 
described in Chajjter XXVI for grapevines. 

D. Edson Smith, of Orange County, who had much experience with 
small fruits, described his method of laying out and planting on a large 
scale, with a view to irrigation, as follows : 

Plow deeply and harrow thoroughly ceveral times before setting out. Lastly, 
open a trench with your plow where the row is to be, twenty inches deep ; go 
along with a basket of plants, a four-foot lath and a shovel, and set a plant in 
this trench every four feet and fill the dirt around it with the shovel, if this 
trench is too deep in places for the length of the plant root, fill in with a little 



406 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

dirt; if not quite deep enough in places, scoop out a shovelful. Aim, in prepar- 
ing the ground with plow and smoother, to leave it dishing each way toward 
the row of young plants, so that irrigating water turned in at the upper end will 
run along the row of plants as in a trough. Aim to have the ground around the 
set plants a few inches below the general level of the land. After the plants are 
all set in a row, go along with a rake if there are but a few plants, or with a 
horse-hoe is there are many, and fill in the trench between the plants. It is a 
pleasure to set out plants in this way, and such deep, rich, well-stirred soil 
delights the plant roots, so that they grow rapidly in every direction, and the 
plants throw up their heads in a manner entirely satisfactory to all concerned. 
If the ground is dry, or there is no rain soon after setting out the plants, irrigat- 
ing water should be turned down the row or at least a quart or two of water 
poured around each plant ; then, before the soil hardens, stir it well with cultivator 
and hoe. All future care resolves itself into frequent waterings and frequent 
stirrings of the soil. Allow no weeds to appear, and keep three inches of surface 
soil well loosened with the horse and hoes. These small fruits require frequent 
waterings, especially when forming fruit and during the fruiting season. 

Cultivation. — Thorough cultivation of the surface soil is essen- 
tial for retention of moisture. After the plants attain size, cultivation 
should be secured with as shallow-cutting tools as possible so as to 
prevent injury to the roots, which not only weakens the plant, but 
increases the growth of suckers between the rows. A horse-hoe with a 
long knife running horizontally, or with duck-foot teeth, well sharpened, 
answers well in keeping the ground clear of weeds and suckers, and the 
surface loose. Due regard must, however, be paid to securing sufficient 
depth in this surface layer to prevent the soil beneath baking hard and 
drying out, as discussed in the chapter on cultivation. 

Frequency of cultivation depends upon irrigation, for the cultivator 
must always follow the application of water. The spaces in the row 
which can not be reached with the cultivator must be kept clean from 
weeds, and free from baking, by the use of the hoe. It is advisable 
that the cultivation be the cleanest possible, for moisture exhaustion by 
weeds can not be afforded. 

Pruning and Training. — There is a little difference in the way 
of training blackberries practiced in this State. Of course this does 
not include the "let alone" system, which is not followed by any good 
grower. The difference lies mainly in the use or disuse of artificial 
supports for the canes. In either case the pruning of the canes is 
similar in kind but different in degree, for if no supports are used, the 
canes are headed lower. 

At planting out, cut back the cane to near the surface of the ground 
and mark the plant with a small stake. At first the top growth should 
not be checked, but when new canes grow out strongly they should be 
pinched at the tip to force out lateral branches for fruiting the next 
year. Those who intend to tie canes to a stake or trellis let them attain 
a height of five or six feet before pinching off the terminal bud ; those 
who intend to teach the cane to stand alone pinch when it is about four 
feet high. All agree to pinch off the ends of the lateral branches at 
about eight to twelve inches from the main stem. This pinching of 
blackberry canes may be done by the watchful grower of a few plants, 
with the thumb and finger, but thrifty blackberry plants are such rapid 
cane growers that in large plantations cutting back is often done with 
a sickle or corn hook or sharp butcher-knife, several times in the course 



PRUNING tiir: rlackrkrry 407 

of the summer. It is also advisable to thin out the suckers with the hoe 
while cutting out weeds, leaving only about as many as it is desired 
to have for fruit the next season. This method gives stout canes, with 
plenty of short side branches, well supplied with buds, which will send 
out fruiting shoots the following spring. If supports are used, the four 
to six canes which are left to each stool are gathered within a loosely- 
drawn bale rope anil tied to the stake ; or if a trellis is used, the branches 
are brought up to the wire or slat so that the distance is about evenly 
divided between the shoots. 

Mr. Claud D. Tribble of Klk Grove gives the following advice for 
handling the Lawton, which is the chief upright variety grown in 
California :. 

Give the plants some support the first season by a stake, and the second season 
the permanent stakes are put in, one on each side of the plant, in driving them, 
allow the tops to be wider than the bottom so the berries can be picked easily. 
Large wires or wooden cleats are used to support the vines or canes. The posts 
are about six feet long and driven in the ground until solid, making the top 
about five feet high. During tb.e first season's growth there is very little pruning 
e.xccpt thinning to the desired number of canes. The second year the canes are 
allowed to grow above the stakes and then tipped to cause laterals to form, 
which are cut back to less than 12 inches to produce berries the following season. 
The old wood is cut out each season and the new shoots trained as before. 
If the old canes are cut out as soon as the crop is gathered, it is done more 
economically and the young plants grow better. 

Though these systematic methods of summer pruning are practiced 
and advocated by the most careful growers, it .should be stated that 
there are large plantations which are conducted upon a more simple 
system. The pruning consists in cutting out old canes in the winter, 
and the only summer pruning is slashing off these canes which interfere 
with cultivation. The canes are sometimes held up by tying bunches 
of them together with ropes. Of course this system costs less than the 
more careful one which has been described, and yields profit enough 
to induce adherence to it. No doubt quite as great weight of berries 
could be had from a smaller area by a better system of growing. 

After the leaves fall, the canes which have borne fruit during the 
summer are all cut off even with the surface of the ground with long- 
handled pruning .shears or with a short hooked knife with a long 
handle, and all debris removed from the rows. 

Application of Manure. — The blackberry loves very rich ground, 
and plenty of well-rotted stable manure or compost, as described in 
Chapter XIV, should be applied. It is a good plan to apply in a thick 
covering all over the ground and between the canes as soon as the 
patch is cleaned up in the fall. The early rains carry down the soluble 
parts of the manure, and later in the season the whole is plowed in 
between the rows, leaving a foot or more next the plants to be carefully 
forked m. as the digging fork does not cut the roots like the spade. 

Mulching.— The mulch, to keep the ground moist and to obviate 
summer cultivation, is very satisfactory where it is thoroughly done. 
Apply coarse manure or partially-rotted straw and the like, after the 
last spring cultivation.^nd use the hoe to keep down weeds and suckers 
which come up between the rows. Some growers use mulch close to 
the canes, cultivating the remainder of the ground between the rows. 



408 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Bearing Age and Longevity. — If blackberry plants are well 
treated the first year after planting out, there will be considerable fruit 
the following summer. How long the plants will bear satisfactorily 
depends, also, on situation and treatment. Sometimes the plants fail 
early ; even with good, generous treatment in good soil, the old stool 
becomes weak, the shoots are thin, and the fruit small. Some count 
about eight years as the profitable age of the plant, and then cut out 
plants and give the land a change. Of course berry growers prepare 
for this by frequently making new plantations. 

Irrigating Blackberries. — Though a good part of the blackberry 
crop is grown in regions of heavy rainfall without irrigation, the use 
of water is sometimes very profitable. Mr. T. B. Cannon, near Los 
Angeles, works in this way : 

Mr. Cannon aims to get Crandall blackberries from June 15 to November, 
which is possible by his system of irrigation and pruning. So the water is 
applied in winter and about every ten days until the berries are as big as peas, 
cultivating between times. The rows are eight feet apart and the plants four, 
so that one-horse cultivation is possible until the fruit gets so heavy as to bend 
over into the onen space. When ripening time begins in June, a ditch is dug 
close to the vines on each side of the row, for irrigation. This gets water 
pretty well where it is needed, the ditches are out of the way of the cultivator 
after the first crop is off, and they are shaded so as to avoid evaporation in the 
hot summer. Water is applied every four or five days during the heavy picking, 
then every ten days till the main summer crop comes on, when it is applied 
twice as often again. Irrigation when the berries are turning black makes them 
larger and of better color. While the juice might thus be considered diluted, 
this is the sort of berry people buy, and the proportion of juice to seeds is what 
makes a desirable market berry, when markets are near by. Such practice might 
make undesirable fruit for canning or shipping. 

Varieties of the Blackberry. — Comparatively few kinds are 
largely grown. The Wilson Junior, Lawton, and Kittatinny were for- 
merly the prevailing kinds, ripening in the order named. The Erie is 
favored by some as a middle season variety. The Early Harvest has 
been favorably reported by a number of growers. These have, however, 
been largely superseded by a renamed variety, Crandall's Early, which 
is the earliest of the improved varieties, and has a very long fruiting 
season. The fruit was named after Dr. J. R. Crandall, of Auburn, who 
first fruited the variety from plants given him by a stranger hailing 
from Texas, and the proper name of the variety is probably Texas 
Early. It is a strong, vigorous, hardy plant, very productive, of firm, 
handsome berries ; resembles Lawton in canes, leaves, and flavor of 
fruit ; not given to sprouting from running roots. 

Another variety which has advanced in favor is the Oregon Ever- 
green, introduced from Oregon but not native nor originated in that 
State. The late John Rock described it as follows : "Origin unknown ; 
beautiful; cut-leaved foliage, which it retains during the winter ;' berries 
large, black, sweet, rich, and delicious. It continues to ripen from July 
to November, which makes it one of the best berries for family use." 
It loses size and quality notably on scant moisture. 

Some effort has been made to secure improved varieties of our 
native blackberry, and a most striking result has been secured by Judge 
J. H. Logan, of Santa Cruz, by crossing the wild berry with Crandall's 



PRUNING TRAILING BLACKBERRIES 409 

Early, producino; a fruit so large that it has been named "Mammoth" 
by its originator. The canes of the IMammoth are very peculiar, being 
very large and thickly covered with small, short spines. The canes 
start early in March, grow thick and stout until about five feet high. 
They then take on a running habit and grow from twenty-five to thirty 
feet in a season. Late in the fall the tips or stolons seek the ground 
and take root. The Mammoth is not an evergreen like its Texas parent, 
although it does not entirely lose its leaves in winter. It begins 
to grow and flower very early in spring and ripens its fruit the last 
of May, some weeks earlier than the Lawton. The fruit is more 
acid than the Lawton, but, when perfectly ripe, is sweet and of superior 
flavor. When cooked or canned the flavor is identical with the wild 
berry of California. This variety is often wrongly called "Black 
Loganberry." 

The Himalaya is a blackberry of wonderful growth and prolificness; 
highly praised by amateurs, but not yet fully made out from a com- 
mercial point of view. It is magnificent on a garden fence or trellis. 

The Dewberry, — The improved varieties of the dewberry, or 
trailing blackberry, are now quite widely known and highly praised, but 
are chiefly grown for home use. Some growers use trellises ; others 
train the vines along rows on the ground surface. The following is 
the method of Mr. A. M. Munger, of Fresno, and includes irrigation 
arrangements : 

For planting the Lucretia dewberry, prepare the ground by plowing deen and 
cultivating until the dirt is thoroughly pulverized. Set the plants about three 
inches deep and four feet apart, in rows, leaving a space of six feet between the 
rows. Plant between February 15th and March 15th. Irrigate as often as once 
a month, always thoroughly cultivating after each irrigation. By so doing a 
sufficient growth is secured to produce a good crop the second year. Immedi- 
ately after the first rainfall, generally in October, the vines should be pruned 
by cutting back within about sixteen inches of the base of the vine. 

In February of the second year, plow between the rows with a small one- 
horse plow, turning the furrows toward the vines, but using a shield so as not 
to cover them. Follow immediately with a hoe, drawing the dirt up under the 
vines and forming a ridge. This ridge should be high enough to keep the vines 
up out of the water when irrigating. After this ridge is formed, water should 
be run quite often, as the dewberry requires a great deal of water to mature 
properly. The vines should be irrigated as often as three times at least during 
the spring. The fruit begins to ripen in Fresno about May 25th, and continues 
about one month. The dewberry roots readily from the tips without covering 
if the soil is loose and moist. If many plants are desired it is advisable to 
cover slightly, and the tips will root as soon as the soil is moistened by the fall 
rains. 

A trellising method for dewberries consists in driving posts to stand 
about three feet high for the dewberry can not be trained up as high as 
other berries. Make a half hoop of coarse wire extending from the 
root of the plant over the arms at top of the post and training the 
plants on this. The rows are usually six feet apart and the plants six 
feet apart in the rows. The vines should be well thinned to produce 
large berries. 

The dewberry which has recently been most largely planted in cen- 
tral and southern California is known as the Gardena because of the 



410 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

prolificness and profitability of a patch grown by W. M. Gray, of Gar- 
dena, Los Angeles county. Its qualities are vigorous growth, hardiness, 
regular and profuse yield of large, early berries. 

Pruning and Training Trailing Berries. — With reference to the 
handling of trailing blackberries and the blackberry-raspberry hybrids 
which are continually becoming more popular, it may be said that there 
is no one best way. There are several good ways, according to the 
desires and convenience of the growers, and this is the reason why 
there is an apparent conflict in which all contestants may be right, each 
from his own point of view. The varieties are sufficiently alike to be 
discussed together. What seem to us the essentials in pruning them 
are these : 

First, they all bear on canes which grow the previous year, and the 
fruit comes on laterals which break from them. In this mild climate 
there is continuous break of laterals which may cover quite a long 
period and the same wood may seem to be bearing twice. This second 
bearing is of so little account that the general rule to remove old wood 
after its main fruiting is a good one. 

Second, the wood which grows this year will therefore bear next 
year, and will send out bearing laterals sufficiently with a number of 
treatments. The new cane may be pinched at any time during growth 
and it will then send wood laterals (not fruit laterals) at once and 
each of these laterals will have the same character that the main shoot 
would have had if it had not been pinched ; that is, it will send out fruit- 
ing laterals at the same date the following season. 

Third, it does not matter whether you make the new growth bunchy 
by laterals following pinching or whether you let it run out and cut off 
part of it at the end of the growing season or whether you shorten it 
in and at the same time cut away closely all the laterals which it may 
have made on its own account when it was running out. In all cases 
there will be dormant buds enough to give fruiting shoots on whatever 
part of the cane you reserve. 

Fourth, the way you prune, then, depends upon serving your own 
convenience in the training of these shoots up to a post, along on a 
wire or along on a ridge on the ground — whatever suits you best to 
keep the fruit out of the dirt, and to promote such cultivation as is desir- 
able, etc., will be accepted by the plant as not interfering with its 
starting fruiting shoots from whatever dormant buds you have allowed 
it to retain on the wood which it matured the previous season. 

Fifth, there is in addition the application of the principle that good 
large fruit is the product of a plant which is not carrying too much 
bearing wood ; that is, is not endeavoring to perfect too much fruit at 
the same time. For this reason, as well as for convenience, it is desir- 
able not to allow a plant to retain all the cane it grows, but to shorten 
it or to remove the laterals or part of them or to shorten the laterals or 
in any other way to require the plant to direct its energy to the better 
development of fewer fruits. 

Sixth, growers are, of course, influenced by dififerent considerations. 
Amateur growers delighting in running vines on fences or trellises 



GROWINC, CRANOALL HLACKRERRIES 411 

would not i)runo as would a commercial "grower, who can not have canes 
running; all over his fields. The amateur can pinch a main shoot and 
send the laterals up the arms of a fan-shaped trellis if he likes and make 
an object of rare ja^arden beauty, and he can reduce the excess of bearing 
wood by cutting away the parts of the laterals which run beyond his 
arms or extra ones beyond those he can carry on his trellis. From the 
point of view of the plant, he does the same thing that the commercial 
grower does when he comes along with his scythe or sickle and cuts 
away indiscriminately all the growth which goes beyond the space 
where it is convenient for him to have the fruit. 

Seventh, do not be too particular about exact methods to imitate; 
try rather to discern principles which may be served by many different 
methods. 

Six Months Fruiting of Crandalls. — One way in which the prin- 
ciples just outlined may be applied to Crandall's Early which is our 
leading blackberry, considering the State as a whole, is described by 
Mr. R. E. Hodges as the practice of Mr. T. B. Cannon, of Los Angeles : 

Briar.s eighteen to twentv-four inches tall, having good root systems, are set 
with a spade in finely pulverized soil as soon after they are dug as possible to 
avoid wilting, to the same depth as they were before, four feet apart in rows 
eight feet apart. The first year they require no pruning. The space between 
rows is occupied by cabbage, beans, corn, potatoes, etc. 

In the second year three or four new canes come up. When these are four 
feet high, cut off six inches, and laterals start from the leaf axis. When these 
are thirty inches long their end buds are cut off and they send out blossoms 
which bear fruit that fall. These same laterals bear the main crop in their 
second year, besides sending out new laterals near the base of the old ones 
about the time the berries are well set. The new laterals bear the second crop, 
which comes on about the time the first crop is gone. The third crop, borjie 
on the new canes, which have been cut back meanwhile to three and one-half 
feet, blossom from August till freezing, and the berries ripen from Septem- 
ber on. 

Mr. Cannon has followed this plan with satisfaction on two or three patches, 
the largest of which is a half-acre set seven years ago in the young family 
orchard. The first crop from this half-acre in 1913 was 180 crates. The second 
and third crops usually together equal two-fifths of the first. The second is 
about half of the third. Two years ago the third alone almost equaled the first. 
And the berries sometimes sell at $2.80 per crate after October. 

Growing Crandalls in Hedge Rows. — A method which aims at 
economy in getting a main crop, without providing for succession, is 
that of Mr. J. B. Wagner, of Pasadena. He uses no trellises, but leaves 
the old canes in the hedge-row to support the new growth, in this way : 

On the day before berry-picking, all protruding new growth is cut back as 
close as possible to the blanket of bearing canes which covers the mat of dead 
ones. This removes all hindrance to picking. Do not leave stubs of new wood 
above the bearing vines, because it raises the general level of bearing wood in 
a year or two, so high that the pickers can scarcely reach over and up to the 
center of the row. When picking is over, both sides of the hedge-row are 
trimmed off clean till it is left only two feet wide. New growth soon leans out 
over this and covers it. wady for a crop next year with the berries well outside 
and handy for the pickers. Every six years he trims the whole hedge back to 
a height of two feet and clears out all the cane over a year old, and this renews 
the plantation. 



412 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

Training the Mammoth. — A good way with the Mammoth, 

grown in a commercial way, is described by Mr. Tribble as follows : 

The Mammoth is one of the earliest of blackberries, very productive and is 
one of the most delicious. The plants are propagated from rooted tips which 
appear on the ends of the vines during the winter months. Mammoths are 
usually trained on a wire trellis made by driving posts at each hill and nailing 
on cross-arms to support the wire, which is stapled to each end of the cross- 
arms. The laterals are trained along the wire about half way between the hills, 
and then cut off to cause them to throw out fruit spurs. As soon as the crop 
is taken from the old canes they should be taken out and the new canes trained 
on the trellis as before. 

Training the Himalaya. — Success with the Himalaya blackberry 
is wholly dependent upon proper pruning, and whether it be grown 
upon an arbor or a fence or upon a low trelUs, the same principles 
must be applied. This variety bears on the same laterals each season 
and reaches its maximum production the fourth or fifth year. This 
variety is the latest to ripen with us, coming in after the Mammoth 
blackberries have all gone. Methods of high and low trellising are thus 
described : 

The high trellis is made on posts 7 feet high and 30 feet apart. Two wires 
are stapled on the posts, one 3^4 feet from the ground and the other at the top. 
Rows should be planted 10 to 12 feet apart and about the same distance in the 
rows. The long runners should be trained and woven in these wires to hold 
up the load of fruit. The second year the runners will throw out laterals 
thickly along the main canes ; these fruit spurs are from 2 to 2j^ feet in length, 
projecting outside the main canes where the berries are all exposed to the 
picker's reach. Not over four canes should be allowed to grow in each hill. 
After reaching the desired length they should be tipped. 

The low trellis method is as follows : New vines grow from the roots some 
30 or 35 feet in a single season. These are trained on the ground by stakes 
under the wires which support the bearing vines, so they do not interfere with 
cultivation and picking. Not too many are allowed to grow. They will throw 
out a fruit bud about every eight inches, a large number of which will develop 
next year into spurs bearing 30 to 60 berries. It will also throw out numerous 
laterals which are cut off before laying the vine on the wires in winter. If they 
were left, and wound around the wires, they would tend to choke out the fruit 
spurs, besides being dangerous to Dickers. Suckers are kept down, and there 
is a clear path for the pickers, lined shoulder high with luscious blackberries. 



THE CRANBERRY 

Though attention has been given to experiments with the growth 
of the cranberry in California for many years, it has not been demon- 
strated that the culture is successful or profitable. Cranberries have 
been produced, and the fruit shown at fairs, but beyond this nothing 
has yet been accomplished. It would seem to be a fair conclusion that 
even in the most moist regions our summer air is too dry to suit the 
plant. 

THE CURRANT 

The currant reaches perfection in size and quality in parts of Cali- 
fornia adapted to its growth, but its area is comparatively small. The 
plant does not thrive in the dry, heated air of the interior either at the 
north or south. It does well near the coast, especially in the upper half 



GROW I NT. TIIF. CURRANT 413 

of the State, and is grown for market chiefly, on lands adjacent to the 
Bay of San Francisco. The comparatively cool and moist air of the 
ocean favors it. but even here the sunburn, which is the bane of its ex- 
istence in the interior valleys, occasionally injures the fruit. Away from 
the coast, currants are thrown to a limited extent along the Sacramento 
and San Joaquin rivers, near their confluence, but not in the hot val- 
leys whence they flow. On the foothills, too, where the plant has a 
northerly slope, or other cooling influence, and sufficiently moist soil, 
it will do moderately well. It is quite possible that the currant may be 
satisfactorily grown for home use. or for local market in parts of the 
State where at present one does not find it, providing the luoderating 
effect of elevation and northerly exposure, coupled with the shade of 
trees, be secured, but even then the hot north wind of the early summer 
may often injure the fruit. So far as the metropolitan market is con- 
cerned, it does not matter that the currant area is limited, for existing 
plantations produce all, and sometimes more, than can be profitably 
disposed of at present. It is possible, however, that the future may 
show a larger demand, for the pure food laws are likely to prevent the 
further selling of apple jelly with a currant color and flavor under the 
name of currant jelly. 

Propagation. — The currant is readily grown from cuttings. As 
soon as the l)us]i drops its leaves, and the ground is in condition, as to 
moisture, secure the cuttings about a foot in length from straight wood 
of the last growth, and place them in nursery or in permanent place, in 
good sandy or garden loam, deeply spaded and well broken up. Set the 
cutting firmly in the earth, six or seven inches deep. If they are to be 
trained as small trees, every bud below where the lowest limb is to 
start should be cut out — even to the end of the cutting underground — 
otherwise they will be continually throwing up suckers. If they are to 
grow as bushes, the natural and more productive form of the currant, 
set them as they are taken from the parent bush. 

Planting and Care. — Currants are usually grown in rows about 
five or six feet apart, the plants standing two and a half or three feet 
apart in the rows. Most of the currant plantations are between orchard 
rows, the partial shade of the trees being considered desirable. It is 
claimed that currants do best when interplanted with cherry, apricot, 
apple, and pear, not so well when associated with plum and peach, and 
the almond is least desirable — possibly because the almond is often 
given less cultivation than the pulpy fruit or is grown on lighter, drier 
soils. The cultivation is such as is usually given to the orchard, except 
that in heavy soil the plow is not allowed to come near the cuttings 
the first season for fear of tearing them from their rooting. After the 
fir.st year the plow is used in the winter and the cultivator in summer. 

Currants will repay generous applications of well-rotted manure, 
and relish sufficient moisture in the soil. Where this can not be had 
from rainfall, and retained by cultivation and mulching, irrigation must 
be resorted to. 

Pruning. — If the currant is to be grown in tree form, the 
branches from the upper buds of the cutting should be shortened in at 



414 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

the end of the, first summer, and branches growing horizontally should 
be removed. The weaker shoots in the head are thinned out, but not 
so much as to leave the top too open. If the plant is to grow as a bush, 
the only winter pruning will consist in removing dead wood, and thin- 
ning the new shoots as may seem desirable, and cutting back about half 
of the new growth. Svmimer pinching of the new growth is desirable, 
as it causes the fruit to set closely and tends to a thick growth of foliage 
also, and this is necessary, for the bark is liable to sunburn, and the 
best fruit is that which is well sheltered by the leaves. Another ad- 
vantage of the bush form is the less likelihood of killing by borers, 
which is imminent when the growth depends upon a single stem. Well 
cared for bushes will bear profitably until about ten years old. Replant- 
ing should be made on new ground. 

Bearing. — The currant bears a quantity of excellent fruit the 
second year from the cutting, and reaches its fullest product about the 
fifth to the eighth year, when the yield in the Hayward region is said to 
range from one and a half to three tons to the acre. 

Varieties. — The Cherry currant is the prevailing variety, al- 
though the old sorts, the Red and White Dutch, the Red and White 
Grape, etc., are grown in some localities, and Fay's Prolific is approved 
by some growers. Pomona is one of the best of the newer red varieties 
and the old Fertile de Palluau is reported as doing better than others 
in hot, interior situations. Black currants are but little grown, the 
market demand for them being very light. 

THE GOOSEBERRY 

The Gooseberry is another fruit with somewhat circumscribed area 
in this State. In localities which favor it. the fruit is often found very 
profitable, but the demand does not warrant any great increase of prod- 
uct. Though the gooseberry thrives in some situations which do not 
suit the currant, they may both be described as averse to the hot and 
dry parts of the State. Still, for home use or local sale one can grow 
certain varieties of gooseberries successfully, by protecting them from 
too great exposure to the sun, and by keeping the soil sufficiently rich 
and moist. The choice of varieties is of the greatest importance, as 
will be mentioned presently. At present the chief supplies of the goose- 
berry, as of the currant, are produced in the country adjacent to San 
Francisco Bay, though thriving and profitable plantations are found 
elsewhere near the coast, here and there in the interior, and at consid- 
erable elevations on the slope of the Sierra Nevada. 

Propagation, Pruning, etc. — The gooseberry is grown from cut- 
tings, very much as already described for the currant. The common 
and the best method is to start the cuttings early in the winter, though 
some have succeeded with cuttings taken in the spring just as the new 
growth is starting out. Disbudding the lower part of the cutting if it is 
desired to train in tree form is also practiced with the gooseberry, but 
a smaller percentage of cuttings is found to grow after disbudding. 



GROWING THE GOOSEBERRY 415 

Gooseberries are planted out and cultivated as already described for 
currants, and the requirements of the plant in soil, moisture, and ma- 
nuring, are much the same. 

If the j:^ooseberry is to be grown in tree form, constant attention to 
removal of suckers is necessary; if in bush form, it will only be neces- 
sary to remove too old wood and thin out the new shoots. Suckers 
should be removed clean from the stem, so as to eradicate the latent 
buds, and pulling off with a gloved hand, when the suckers become 
woody enough to withstand breaking, is advised. As with the currant, 
the borer is a constant menace to the life of a gooseberry plant confined 
to a single stem. 

Diseases and Pests. — The gooseberry is subject to insect depre- 
dation both in wood and fruit and leaf. The prevailing trouble, how- 
ever, and that which causes the failure of so many foreign kinds, is tue 
mildew. To escape this nothing is usually done except to select varieties 
not subject to the disease, but susceptible varieties can be protected by 
spraying just as the leaves are opening and once a month afterwards 
with potassium sulphide half an ounce to the gallon of water. This does 
not stain nor poison the fruit. The cooler and moister the air the less 
the mildew. 

Varieties of the Gooseberry. — The American varieties, Downing 
and Houghton's Seedling, chiefly the latter, constituted for a long time 
the main varieties marketed in San Francisco. Early experiments with 
collections of English varieties showed that most of them were fail- 
ures because of mildew ; still a few of the green and white sorts, nota- 
bly the Whitesmith, have succeeded. The proportion of large berries 
now being marketed is much greater than formerly, and the superior 
price warrants especial effort to produce them. 

A large English variety, which was brought to California many 
years ago by the late John W. Dwinelle. is now the most widely dis- 
tributed large kind. Its true name was lost and it has been propagated 
under various names, viz., Dwinelle, Kelsey, New French ; but the name 
Berkeley, adopted by W. P. Hammon, in his wide distribution of it in 
1884, now prevails. It is large and handsome, very prolific, ripens 
early, and is usually free from mildew. 

The Champion, an Oregon seedling grown by Seth Le welling, is 
medium sized, very smooth, and thick fleshed, the seeds being few and 
small. They are entirely free from mildew, and are clean, bright and 
beautiful. The Columbus, a New York variety, is large and of good 
quality and resists mildew well. 

THE MULBERRY 

Nearly all varieties of the mulberry have been introduced in Cali- 
fornia and grown rapidly and thriftily. Most attention has been paid 
to those varieties most suitable for feeding silk-worms, but the fruiting 
varieties are also grown here, though the fruit has assumed no com- 
mercial importance. * The mulberry is grown readily from cuttings. 
The fruiting varieties thus far chiefly distributed are the Downing, 
Everbearing, the Persian, the New American, the Russian, and the 



416 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Black Mulberry of Spain. All these bear large and desirable fruit. The 
last named, introduced by Felix Gillett, of Nevada City, is grown quite 
widely. The mulberry has a long season ; the Persian ripens in Tulare 
the last of May and continuously thereafter until October. 



THE RASPBERRY 

The raspberry is another of the great small fruits of California. It 
thrives over a great area of the state ; in fact, there are few situations 
in which it can not be grown with at least a measure of success if 
proper attention is given to retention of moisture in the surface soil, 
and to giving the plants partial shade in the heated valleys, and the 
cooler exposures in the foothills. The raspberry, skillfully pruned and 
generously fed and cared for, is almost a constant bearer, as has already 
been intimated. It is a continual delight in the home garden, and al- 
ways brings a high average rate in local and metropolitan markets. 

The culture of the raspberry is in the main like that of the black- 
berry, as already described. The red varieties, which are the kinds al- 
most exclusively grown in this State, are propagated by suckers and 
root cuttings like the blackberry, but the "black caps" are propagated 
by layering the cane tips during the growing season, and this method 
is also necessary in the Loganberry and other blackberry-raspberry 
hybrids. Bending down a cane with its branches and covering lightly 
with soil and with a light mulch to retain moisture, will result in free 
rooting of the buried parts, and one can sometimes secure a dozen 
plants by the layering of a single cane with its laterals. 

The pruning of the raspberry is also by the renewal system, as ad- 
vised for the blackberry. The topping off of new canes, when they 
reach about three feet in height, the subsequent pinching of the laterals 
which are thus forced out, the resolute thinning out of sprouts so that 
but three or four strong canes are allowed from one root, the faithful 
repression of all weeds, the maintenance of a loose surface layer of the 
soil by very shallow cultivation, the free application of manure and of 
water unless a continually moist condition near the surface can be se- 
cured by cultivation and mulching — all these are among the essentials 
of cultivation which will secure abundant fruit and a long bearing sea- 
son. However, as has already been stated with regard to blackberries, 
there are large plantations which pursue a less careful system of culti- 
vation especially in the moderate heat and drouth of the coast district. 

Continuous bearing of the raspberry may be secured in those varie- 
ties which endure the treatment, by cutting out a cane as soon as its 
fruit is gathered, the force of the plant being then devoted to the fruit- 
ing of a second cane, which has previously been pinched, and a third 
shoot is pinched and allowed to mature its wood to carry over and bear 
the first crop of the follov/ing year. A succession of sprouts is gained 
by pinching off the tips of some as soon as they have grown up a few 
inches, which results in the growth of later shoots lower on the stems. 
In this way a succession of fruit is obtained. 

The Cuthbert and other strong-growing varieties, after the pinching 
at about three feet from the ground, will send out laterals which will 




Plate XX.— The Mammoth Blackberry. — (See page 408.) 



GROWING THE RASPBERRY 417 

bear late in the fall, and the same cane will bear a crop early in the fol- 
lowinjy sprinj^, when its career is ended and it should be removed. 

Raspberries are planted about three feet apart in rows, and the 
rows about six feet apart. They can be well grown nearer together 
than is required for blackberries. 

A Raspberry Trellis. — Mr. Louis F. Scribner, a well-known 
berry j^rower of Pasadena, commends a double-wire trellis made in 
this way : 

At each end of a row a post should be deeply set and firmly anchored by 
brace or anchor wire, and a 2x3 redwood or cedar post should be set about 
every 20 feet in the row and a wire stretched on each side about three feet from 
the ground. These wires when stretched will be the width of the post in distance 
apart, and serve to keep the canes erect and in the row where they belong, so 
that cultivation and picking will not destroy the tender growth. The field 
should be gone over at intervals and canes drawn up between the wires when 
long enough. 

Behavior of varieties under pruning varies greatly. Surprise can be pruned 
to advantage when dormant, but if cut back when sap is flowing and weather is 
hot they often die. This variety will bear two crops if handled right and none 
at all if abused. A variety like the Idaho needs very little if any cutting back, 
and the Superlative likes to swing gracefully over the trellis. The good old 
Cuthbcrt should be cut back with care, leaving as much cane as can be supported 
by the wires. The Red Antwerp is much like the Cuthbert. The Ruby, Miller, 
London, Herbert and St. Regis are all good varieties and require about the 
same care. The latter variety gives out an abundant sucker growth, which is 
not desirable when not confined. 

Varieties of the Raspberry. — The old varieties have been largely 
replaced by the Cuthbert. which is the universally popular and most 
largely-planted sort, having been found trustworthy as a grower and 
as a free and constant bearer. The good points of the Cuthbert, as 
representing the experience of many California growers, include the 
following: A profuse grower, with healthy and rich foliage, which 
protects fruit from sunburn ; an excellent bearer with the fruit well dis- 
tributed through the bush ; the fruit comes ofT easily, and does not 
crumble, is of fine flavor, and ships well. The Hansel and Red Ant- 
werp and several newer varieties are grown to a limited extent ; and the 
Barter, a renamed variety, the identity of which is unknown, has always 
retained a degree of popularity in the foothill region of Placer County, 
where it first appeared. 

The Black Cap varieties thrive fairly in most parts of the State but 
do not sell well in the markets, and are only growm for home use. The 
golden or yellow raspberries are also out of favor because they are shy 
bearers and cut no figure in the California product. 

Blackberry-Raspberry Hybrids. — Two crosses of California ori- 
gin have been widely distributed and have demonstrated great value. 

The Loganberry was originated by Judge J. H. Logan of Santa 
Cruz, and is a cross between the California wild blackberry and a red 
raspberry, thought to be the Red Antwerp. It was a chance hybrid de- 
veloped by growing plants from the seed of the wild blackberry in 18<SL 
The plant was multiplied by its originator and fruited for more than 
ten years, plants being meantime given to Mr. James Waters, of Wat- 
sonville. who grew it on a commercial scale and was gratified at the 
results of his marketing of the fruit. The variety was first given to the 



418 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

public through the University of California in 1893 and has since then 
been propagated by nurserymen and sold in large quantities. It has 
proved a most valuable fruit in all parts of California, and has com- 
manded the attention of pomologists and growers all over the world. 
The Loganberry is an exceedingly robust grower, and has unique foli- 
age and cane growth as well as fruit. The fruit is strikingly large and 
handsome ; sometimes an inch and a quarter long, with the shape of a 
blackberry, and sometimes the hue of a dark red raspberry. Its flavor 
is unique and peculiar, and gives to many tastes suggestions of the com- 
bination of blackberry and raspberry flavors. The culture of the Lo- 
ganberry is like that of the dewberry — both in growth and propagation, 
rooting readily from cane tips without covering, unless many plants are 
desired and then a covered cane will root at each joint. 

The Phenomenal is a hybrid which has recently been largely grown 
for a trade which prefers a less sharp acid than that of the Loganberry. 
It is one of the notable achievements of Mr. Luther Burbank, of Santa 
Rosa, and is a cross between the California dewberry and a red rasp- 
berry. It is exceedingly large, bright crimson, very productive and of 
delicious flavor. The fruit comes in large clusters and single berries 
have weighed four to the ounce. In shipping it holds shape and color 
well. The Phenomenal is counted about one week later than the Logan- 
berry. 

Trellising for Hybrid Berries. — The discussion and methods for 
training the trailing blackberries, already given at much length in this 
chapter, apply also to the Loganberry and Phenomenal. A special ar- 
rangement commended for the Loganberry is the following : 

Plant the rows eight feet apart and vines four feet apart in the row. Use 
common fence posts for trellising, setting them sixteen or twenty feet apart, 
four feet high after they are set; then measure from top of post one foot down 
and nail a two-foot crosspiece ; use three wires, stapling one to the top of the 
posts and one on each side to the end of the crosspieces. This gives a nice oval 
surface with three times the room as having the wires one above the other on 
the post. In the spring raise the vines and distribute them evenly and tie them 
firmly to the wires. 

THE STRAWBERRY 

"Strawberries all the year round" is the trite expression by which 
the charms of the California climate are characterized. It is no fiction, 
for in the wonderfuUy-even climate of regions adjacent to the coast and 
in thermal belts in the interior, the strawberry plant blooms and bears 
almost continuously, providing proper moisture conditions are main- 
tained in the soil. There are, however, more or less well-defined crops, 
and "strawberries all the year" does not mean a uniform supply; nor 
does it mean that everywhere in California can one expect such constant 
fruiting. In the very hot interior situations the plant rebels against the 
atmospheric conditions of midsummer, even though the ground be 
moist; and in frosty places the plant becomes dormant during the 
wintry portion of the year. The conditions of constant growth and 
bearing are moderation of temperature and of atmospheric and soil 
moisture throughout the year. 



GROWING THE STRAWBERRY 419 

Situations and Soils for the Strawberry. — Bearing in mind the 
conditions described, the strawberry can be grown anywhere in CaH- 
fornia. The native species, as mentioned in Chapter \', tlunrish from 
the sand of the ocean beach to the rich valleys of the Sierra, just below 
the line of perpetual snow, and the deduction is that wherever fertile 
soil and sweet water can be brought together in California, the straw- 
berry will reward the grower. 

Strawberries do well on a variety of soils, but as a rule a deep, 
moist, loamy soil will yield best results. Boggy or swampy spots shonld 
be avoided unless drainage is provided, and in this way most e.xcellent 
strawberry ground may sometimes be secured. Land which will pro- 
duce good potatoes or corn will generally yield good results with straw- 
berries, provided irrigation is furnished. In many regions the plants 
will hardly survive the summer without irrigation and everywhere a 
succession of crops during the season depends upon irrigation. It is the 
common experience that light, warm soils yield the earliest and highest- 
flavored berries, and heavy soils the later and larger ones ; but tiie size 
of the berry depends more upon the supply of available moisture, and 
immense fruit can be produced on loose, open soils by free irrigation. 
.Vnd yet the heavier soil, both because of its usually superior fertility 
and retention of moisture, is preferred for the strawberry. The largest 
producing regions for the San Francisco market in the Santa Clara 
and Pajaro X'alleys are comprised mainly of low-lying, heavy valley 
soils, naturally moist and rich, and furnished with abundant water sup- 
ply for irrigation. And yet in southern California the chief market 
crops are produced upon light sandy loams with water equal to the 
needs of the plants upon such a footing. It must be remembered that 
the strawberry is a shallow-rooting plant and must have moisture re- 
tained near the surface. Some loose soils, especially on uplands, are 
almost out of the question for strawberry growing. They are so Icr.chv 
that they will not hold moisture near the surface though one should 
stand with a hose and almost continually pour it on. The plants would 
also dry up though the water were running near by in a ditch. To grow 
strawberries it is often an advantage to have a shallow loam over a clay 
or hardpan, for then the tight layer below will prevent the escape of the 
water below the reach of the roots. If this can not be had, the best 
way to grow strawberries on leachy soils for home use is to mulch and 
sprinkle. 

Propagation of the Strawberry. — Seedlings undertaken in the 
hope of originating valuable new varieties are easily grown by taking 
off the outside layer of the choicest berries, which carries with it the 
small, yellow seeds. Wash these from the skin and cover them slightly 
in a sandy soil partially shaded and kept moist by sprinkling, or a light 
mulch, and the plants are readily grown. .-Xs with seedlings of other 
fruits, few, if any, will be found superior to the parent variety. 

Plants for setting out are secured by taking off the small growths 
rooted from runner^ The strongest plants are those nearest to the 
parent plant. When these arc allowed to root in small pots plunged 
into the soil, they are called "p^^t-grown." and are superior for plant- 
ing out, but they are not largely used in this State. When plants of 



420 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

any variety are desired for new beds or fields, a 'row or more are 
allowed to send out runners, during the summer, and these are fit for 
taking up and replanting the following winter or spring. 

Laying off Ground for Strawberries. — The essentials are deep 
and thorough pulverization of the soil and grading of the surface so 
that water will flow slowly in the ditches. Suggestions as to location 
of grade lines may be found in Chapter XV. The inclination which 
answers for water distribution may be very slight ; about two inches to 
the hundred feet answers on the level lands of the Pajaro Valley, while 
in the foothills much greater fall is made use of, and on hillsides rows 
are located on contour lines and not in straight lines. A grade of three 
and three-quarters inches to the hundred feet is sometimes used. The 
triangle described in Chapter XV can be used to fix the grades. 

Of course, in grading the field it is often necessary to give adjacent 
blocks opposite inclinations to provide for the return of the water. On 
hillsides, where the water is carried down a ridge to a flume, it is usual 
to keep the water always running away from the flume, and only enough 
is taken out to reach the ends of the small ditches. A grade of six 
inches to the rod is practicable for hillside irrigation, but of course only 
a small flow of water is employed. 

There are various ways of laying out strawberry beds and planta- 
tions. Some give flat cultivation and lay out in single rows two and a 
half to three and a half feet apart, and in some districts flat culture is 
unquestionably the best. Others lay out in double rows a foot and one- 
half to two feet apart, and between each pair of rows the soil from the 
center is drawn up to each side, making a low ridge or level a little 
higher than the surface on which the plants are set. This levee serves 
as a walk between the beds and holds back the water upon the bed 
when irrigated by flooding. Another, and generally adopted plan, is to 
have the plants in double rows on a slight ridge, while between the 
beds is a furrow which serves as a walk and for irrigation. This is 
accomplished by throwing up the soil with the plow into ridges about 
two feet wide, with a double furrow between. On the sides of these 
ridges the plants are set, and often on the top of the ridge between the 
rows of strawberries a single row of onions or lettuce, or some other 
vegetable, is grown the first year. In irrigation the water is drawn up 
from the trenches by the roots and by capillary attraction, and the upper 
surface does not bake as it would by flooding if the soil be heavy. In 
hoeing out weeds and in fruit gathering, the workman walks in the ditch 
and does not pack the soil around the plant by tramping. This is the 
best method for laying out for large plantations. The rows are a uni- 
form distance apart across the field, whether the space between be a 
ridge or a ditch. The method of making the beds a little lower than 
the general surface of the ground, answers best on free, open soils with 
perfect drainage. Cultivation can be reduced by covering the depressed 
surface of the bed with mulch of fine, clean litter, such as chafif, cut 
straw, etc. This retains moisture and gives the berry a clean surface 
to rest on. Such a bed is an excellent arrangement for the home garden. 

In all arrangements the plants are set at less distances in the rows 
than the rows are from each other. Probably the prevailing distance is 



PLANTING STRAWBERRIES 421 

one foot between the plants ; the range is from eight to eighteen inches 
in the practice of different growers, and determined, of course, largely 
by the habit of the variety. A vine like the Sharpless, with a spreading 
growth and long fruit stem needs, perhaps, sixteen inches which some 
growers give it, while the smaller, more compact, Longworth Prolific, 
may do well with half that distance. 

Planting Strawberries.— Strawberry plants are set out either in 
spring or fall, or at any time in the winter when the ground is warm 
or in good condition. Fall planting usually gives a fuller spring crop 
though planting as late as February has brought two crops the follow- 
ing spring and summer, and planting in April has secured fruit the 
same year, but it is better to prevent it and induce more growth. Spring- 
planting is in April and May. In the drier parts of the State, early fall 
or winter planting is more essential than elsewhere. If the ground is 
dry, water should always be used in planting. This may be given by 
thorough irrigation of the ground before planting, or a little water may 
be used in setting each plant. At planting it is usually best to remove 
all leaves from the plant, shorten the roots to three inches or less, and 
be sure the plants do not dry while planting progresses. As with han- 
dling rooted grape-vines, it is advisable to carry around the plants in a 
vessel which has water in it. If the plants have been received by mail 
they are invigorated by soaking in water a few hours before planting. 

In setting the plants, scoop out a little excavation with the hand or 
a trowel, spread the roots well, cover with fine soil, being sure that the 
crown of the plant shall not be below the surface when the soil is leveled. 
Too many strawberry plants are buried, not planted. Some plant very 
rapidly by using a dibble to make a hole, into which the roots are 
dropped and soil pressed around them by using the dibble alongside ; 
others set the plants on the side of the furrow, trusting to the next fur- 
row to complete the covering. Nearly all ways succeed if the plant is 
not set too deeply and the ground is moist at planting and not allowed 
to dry out afterwards — providing good, strong plants are used. In 
buying plants it is often poor economy to buy the cheapest. 

Staminate and Pistillate. — In associating varieties be sure the 
pistillate varieties are not set by themselves. Some sorts have perfect 
flowers and are self-fertilizing; others have only the pistillate element 
in the bloom and must have the staminate adjacent in another variety. 
Several varieties largely grown in California have perfect flowers, 
though some pistillate sorts have been locally approved. This matter 
should be looked into before planting a variety. Pistillate varieties 
should have staminate kinds in every fourth row. 

Care of the Stravx^berry Plantation, — Herein lies the secret of suc- 
cess with the strawberry : Neglect has led to disappointment and con- 
demnation of the strawberry, where intelligent care would have ren- 
dered it a constant delight. The cheap elements of proper care may 
be thus enumerated : 

Retention of moisture very near the surface by careful, shallow 
cultivation or by mulching, persistent destruction of weeds, and com- 
pensation for summer evaporation by frequent irrigation. The plants 



422 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

during the bearing season should never be allowed to show any leaf- 
shriveling from drouth. Frequency of irrigation depends upon local 
conditions. Irrigation at intervals of four to ten days, according to the 
soil, are the outlines of prevailing practice. 

Constant removal of runners from all plants except those it is de- 
sired to multiply to furnish new plants or to fill the rows. Pinching of 
runners should always accompany picking or hoeing of weeds, and on 
the garden bed there can be no excuse for neglect in this respect. The 
young plants should be faithfully freed from runners to strengthen them 
up for bearing. 

Though, as already stated, strawberries may in some locations be 
had all winter, it is better practice, as a general rule, to lay the plants 
away for a rest. The market season in the regions supplying the- San 
Francisco market extends from April to December, and fruit is con- 
tinuously shipped during that period. At the approach of winter in the 
last-named month, it is usual to go over the beds with a sickle, cutting 
off the old crops of leaves close to the root crown, carefully cleaning 
up the plantation for the heavy rains. In most cases it will be a great 
advantage then to cover over all with a light coat of good manure, 
which the winter rains will leach down into the soils. The result of the 
fall clipping and enriching will be an early and strong start of the plant 
in the spring, and a most abundant fruitage. 

Duration of the Plantation. — Strawberry plants well cared for 
and not visited by insect pests, have a long, productive, and profitable 
life in California. Twelve-year-old plants are sometimes reported as 
still producing abundantly. It is customary to count from five to eight 
years as the profitable life of a plant, though some growers replant after 
two bearing years. The effective duration depends directly upon pre- 
venting growth of plants and too close matting of the rows. 

Varieties of the Strawberry. — Though all new varieties are tried 
by California growers, and quite a number may be considered success- 
ful either for market or for home use, only a very few may be said to 
be widely grown. In the Watsonville district, which largely supplies 
San Francisco, the Melinda, which some growers hold to be indis- 
tinguishable from the Dollar, is chiefly grown, with Brandywine as a 
distant second. In the southern Alameda County district the Banner is 
grown exclusively by some large growers. In the Florin district, near 
Sacramento, growing berries to ship all through the northern States of 
the coast and eastward to Colorado, the Dollar is grown almost ex- 
clusively, with a few Jessies for extra early. Other varieties which do 
well in the interior valley are : Longworth, Lady Thompson, and Ten- 
nessee Prolific. In the Fresno district, Marshall and Jessie are chiefly 
grown. 

In the districts near Los Angeles, the Brandywine prevails. It is 
best for shipping and is held to be sweeter than at the east ; and next to 
it, in the commercial fields at the south, are Excelsior and Klondike. 
The Arizona Everbearing is declining in popularity although still 
favored by some growers in Southern California. 

Three old kinds which still hold favor for home use and local sale 
are the Longworth Prolific, the Sharpless, and the Monarch of the 



ETTERSBURG STRAWBERRIES 423 

West. The Sharpless is the most widely grown ; the Monarch shows 
better size and color in southern California and on the Sierra foothills 
than in the regions adjacent to San l<"rancisco, although it is still grown 
therein to some extent. The Longworth is an old favorite, early, pro- 
ductive and hardy, and its style has become very popular in the markets. 
Wilson's Albany also holds favor. 

It has been demonstrated that varieties show marked difference in 
behavior in different soils and situations. In planting for market or 
home use the planter will be safer in making his largest plantations of 
the varieties commended by leading growers and well informed nursery- 
men, and at the same time he should put out experimental plants of 
other varieties. 

The most notable work for new varieties in California is being 
pursued by Albert F. Etter, of Briceland, Humboldt County. He is 
crossing cultivated varieties with local wild species and is thus in- 
troducing factors not employed hitherto with results which promise 
to be notable. His first named variety is Rose Ettersburg, which is 
a cross of a third generation Sharpless x Parry with a novel type 
of Fragaria Chiloensis. It has remarkable drouth resistance and 
thrift on poor soils. The blossoms are often as large as a silver 
dollar, the berries large, often 1^^ inches in diameter, and bluish 
pink in color. Single stocks from sets 18 months out measured 22 
inches high and over 10 feet in circumference. Mr. Etter's work is 
described in detail in the Pacific Rural Press for August 22 and 29 
and September 5 and 19, 1908; May 18, October 5 and November 2, 
1912, and is very interesting. The variety, Ettersburg No. 80, was 
distributed by this journal in February, 1913, and has already dis- 
closed very important characteristics. 



PART SEVEN: NUTS 



CHAPTER XXXVII 
NUT GROVx^ING IN CALIFORNIA 

Two nuts have risen to large commercial importance in Cali- 
fornia: The English walnut and the almond. Other nuts than 
these, except peanuts, have never attained great acreage, although 
several have succeeded and promise to become popular. 

The commercial production of almonds and walnuts in Cali- 
fornia during the last nineteen years has been estimated by the trade 
as follows, in tons of 2,000 lbs. : 

Year Almonds Walnuts 

1895 825 2,310 

1896 1,605 4,115 

1897 2,375 3,985 

1898 450 5,660 

1899 2,320 5,530 

1900 2,740 5,430 

1901 1,560 6,910 

1902 3.270 8,520 

1903 3,200 5,500 

1904 800 7,590 

1905 2,125 5,750 

1906 900 6,125 

1907 750 6,500 

1908 2,900 8,500 

1909 1,500 8,000 

1910 3,300 9,600 

1911 1,700 12,500 

1912 3,000 11,250 

1913 1,100 11,750 

The walnuts are chiefly grown in Santa Barbara, Ventura, Los 
Angeles and Orange counties in southern California. The almonds 
are from interior counties in the central regions of the State. 
Reasons for the extreme fluctuations in production of the almond 
will be suggested in the discussion of that nut which will follow. 

THE ALMOND 

The almond has an interesting history in California, but it can be 
outlined in a few sentences. The importation of the best European 
varieties began very early, and a number of them had been planted 
in 1853. They proved irregular bearers, though the trees grew 
thriftily and in some cases showed fruit very soon after planting. 

424 



REQUIREMENTS OF THE ALMOND 425 

The barren almond trees were largely grafted into prunes or made 
into firewood and the conclusion was reached that to secure regu- 
larity and abundance in fruiting, locations for almond orchards must 
be sought with the utmost care, and that the secret of success lay 
in the location. After that local seedlings seemed to demonstrate 
their value in regular crops, and in characteristics and qualities 
superior to foreign kinds. Large planting was then undertaken on 
the ground that the choice of soil and situation, and the selection of 
trustworthy varieties, are both factors of success, but that possibly 
more lay in the choice of variety than of location. This belief led 
to the wide planting in locations now seen to be unfitted by reason 
of frosts and losses were again encountered. Now it seems to be 
fully demonstrated that no matter what variety is planted locations 
for the almond must be selected with great care. It has also been 
demonstrated that association of varieties promotes pollination and 
satisfactory bearing. 

Situations and Soils for the Almond. — Almonds are now doing 
best on the higher lands in coast valleys, free from fogs and pro- 
tected from direct winds, but subject to tempered breezes; also at 
various points in the interior valleys and foothills. The general 
proposition that low lands in small valleys should be avoided, and 
bench or hillside situations preferred, seems to be a safe one. Lands 
directly upon the coast have not proved satisfactory. In the large 
interior valleys of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, almonds are 
successfully grown on flat valley lands but little lifted above sea 
level and from such plains the chief product comes. Why almonds 
are safer on the low lands of a great valley than of a small valley is 
explained by the discussion on page 16. 

The almond prefers a loose, light, warm soil, and heavy, poorly- 
drained soils should be avoided. Though they need moisture enough 
to make good, thrifty growth they wnll produce good crops on soils 
that are too light or dry to grow satisfactory peaches, apricots, nec- 
tarines, cherries, or similar pulpy fruits. The almond is, however, a 
very deep-rooting tree, and may succeed by reaching deeply for 
moisture rather than by denying itself, as some think. The tree 
certainly suffers and is barren from drouth in some cases, and a 
certain amount of irrigation in midsummer is very desirable. Al- 
monds are doing well in alfalfa with irrigation — the alfalfa making 
a good growth and still leaving soil-moisture enough to cause the 
nuts to open their hulls better than on drier ground with clean cul- 
tivation. 

Propagating, Planting, and Pruning. — The almond is propagated 
from seedlings grown as described in Chapter VIII, and budded as 
described in Chapter IX. The almond root is preferred, though the 
peach answers well. The apricot root should be avoided. 

For planting out, trees in dormant bud are very successful if given 
proper care. Yearlfhg trees are, on the whole, best and usually those 
w hich have made a moderate instead of a very large growth are to be 
preferred. The almond makes a comparatively large tree and should 



426 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

have plenty of room — not less than twenty-four feet apart (though 
some plantations are made at twenty feet ) , and thirty feet is better. 

Old almond trees are readily worked over to other varieties by 
grafting- and by budding into new shoots forced out by cutting off large 
branches. Methods with the peach described in page 242 are applicable 
to the almond. 

The pruning of the almond is very simple. The tree should be 
headed low and pruned during the first three years, as described in 
Chapter XII, to secure a shapely, strong tree. After the third year 
little pruning is required except to thin out objectionable branches by 
winter pruning. Suckers, or rank new growth, in the center of the tree 
should be removed, unless more branches are needed ; such growth 
bears little and takes away strength from bearing wood. There is dan- 
ger of allowing the trees to become too dense. Shortening in, as prac- 
ticed with the peach, is sometimes proposed for the almond, for the 
thrift of the tree and the size of the nut, but growers have not had 
courage enough to assume the increased cost of production which would 
be involved. 

The cultivation of the almond orchard is the same as commended 
for other fruit trees, and as the trees are often planted in naturally dry 
soils, the greater care in cultivation is needed to retain sufficient 
moisture to give good size to the nuts. In certain locations, of course, 
irrigation will be necessary, but usually a light rainfall will answer if 
good cultivation is given. 

Gathering, Hulling, and Bleaching. — Almonds are gathered by 
spreading canvas under the tree and jarring the branches separately 
with a side stroke from a soft wood pole; the few nuts remaining can 
be displaced by striking with a light stick. The gathering should be 
done after the hulls have burst open, but should not be delayed until the 
nuts are badly discolored. Discoloration of the nut depends upon local 
atmospheric conditions and is worst in regions subject to moist winds 
or fogs from the ocean, and they often extend considerable distances 
into the interior valleys. On the dry plateaux adjacent to the Mojave 
Desert perfectly bright almonds are produced naturally, but at these 
elevations frost injuries are frequent and notable. 

For the greater part of the almond product, bleaching is apparently 
demanded by market requirements, but it must be carefully done as 
described on the following page. Various home-made contrivances are 
used for bleaching, such as piling up several of the slat-bottom trays one 
upon another, placing around them sides made of boards so as to hook 
together at the corners, cover the top with a damp canvas, and burn the 
sulphur in a hole in the ground below the bottom tray. 

Webster Treat, formerly a large grower of almonds, describes his 
sulphuring-house for almonds : 

My bleaching house is about twenty-five feet by eight feet, and I generally put 
in about four thousand pounds of almonds and expose them to sulphur fumes 
for three or four hours. The house is boarded with tongue and groove flooring, 
inside and out, and roofed with well-laid shingles, and has a flue about two feet 
high on the apex, to help draft the sulphur smoke up. The floor is of one-by- 
three-inch stuff, set up edgewise, three-eighths of an inch apart, or just wide 
enough to admit the fumes from the sulphur burning below, and narrow enough 



HARVESTING ALMONDS. 427 

to prevent the nuts from falling through. The floor is about two and one-half 
feet above the ground, and the lower space is boarded up with tongue and groove 
also and fitted with small doors every five feet, so that the sulphur pans can be 
placed underneath the floor. 

Sulphur fumes are applied luitil the nuts are of a light yellowish 
color ; the proper shade is to be learned by securing approved samples 
from some trustworthy dealer. 

The following explicit account of handling almonds on a large 
scale is by Mr. J. P. Dargitz, of Acampo, San Joaquin county: 

"When the hulls on the nuts are loose from the shell, as will be 
indicated by their bursting open, it is time to begin gathering if you 
wish to hull them. If they get too dry you will have to wet them 
before hulling or you will break the shells. If you wish to shell them 
then, the drier they get the better. It will not pay to begin until the 
nuts about the crotches of the trees are ready and they will be the last 
to ripen. When they are all ready you can get all at one gathering. 
Have some sheets made of heavy unbleached sheeting or light duck or 
sail cloth. Mine for large trees are 15x30 feet, handled by two men to 
a sheet and two sheets to a tree. Spread the sheets under the tree, one 
on each side, lapping the edges where they join. Then the men take 
willow or bamboo poles and by jarring the limbs cause the nuts to 
fall on the sheets. Always strike the limbs sideways, for if you strike 
a glancing blow down the limb, you will reduce next year's crop. 
The object is to get the nuts and disturb the foliage as little as possible. 
When the nuts are all off the tree, the men toss their poles to the next 
tree and then gather up the sheets, one man at each end of each sheet 
and, lifting them, carry them to the next tree where the process is 
repeated. When enough nuts are in sheets to fill several lug boxes, 
the boxes are placed on the ground side by side, and the sheets are 
emptied into them. These boxes are then stacked up so as to be easily 
seen, and the teamster hauls them to the sheds where machines for 
hulling are located. In the very small orchards the hulling is usually 
done by hand at an expense of about 2 cents per pound. For orchards 
slightly larger there are small hullers in the market at from $100 to 
$300, which can be operated by hand or by a small gasoline engine or 
electric motor. For larger orchards, machines costing up to $800, 
which can hull up to two or three tons per day, are in the market. 

After the hulling more or less hand sorting is required, as the 
small machines do no sorting, while the larger machines do more or 
less perfect sorting of the hulls from the nuts. 

Bleaching. — After this hand sorting, the nuts are spread out in 
the sun to be thoroughly cured before bleaching. After they are 
cured so that the kernel will break without bending, they are ready 
for bleaching. The bleaching requires the dampening of the shells. 
This is accomplished by immersing quickly in water or by a fine spray 
from a hose nozzle, or by putting on trays and running in the sulphur 
house and then introducing low-pressure steam — not more than 30 
pounds — into the sulphur house for 15 to 30 minutes. The moisture 
from this low-pressure steam heats or dampens the outer portion of the 
shell, and then while they are both hot and damp — the steam being 



428 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

shut off — the sulphur fumes from burning sulphur is introduced in 
the sulphur house for perhaps 15 to 30 minutes and gives the required 
brightening to the shell. If the almonds have been immersed before 
bleaching it will be necessary after bleaching to spread them out in the 
sun for several hours and stir them occasionally to get rid of the excess 
moisture. If they have been dampened by a fine spray hose they may 
or may not need this drying, but they must be perfectly dry before 
being sacked. However, if the steam process is used, the nuts can 
be taken immediately from the sulphur house and sacked, and the heat 
that is in the shell will evaporate the small amount of moisture in the 
process of sacking. 

The steam process costs only about one-half as much as the other 
process of bleaching. If the shell is wet through, or if the kernels are 
not well cured, or if the shells are open and the nuts immersed and 
there is more or less water inside the shells, the sulphur will materially 
injure the kernels and they will not keep well, but will soon become 
rancid. 

Almonds that are to be shelled for commercial purposes should 
not be bleached under any circumstances, as the only object to be 
accomplished in bleaching is the brightening of the shell, and for 
shelling purposes the shells are not marketed. 

Pollination and Late Blooming. — The advantages of cross pollina- 
tion between different varieties and the surer bearing of late blooming 
varieties are related subjects which are worthy of close attention. Mr. 
J. P. Dargitz, whose harvesting method has just been given, has 
pointed out that, according to his observation as a rule all the paper- 
shells are deficient in pollen, and will not bear well if planted alone and 
he concludes that the only two which warrant planting in his section 
are the Nonpareil and the Ne Plus Ultra. The latter is not so good, 
a nut, and needs much more moisture than the other. The Nonpareil 
will give good results if planted with some other variety as pollenizer. 
It is one of the very best of nuts and is well worth planting. Mr. 
Dargitz regards the Texas Prolific the very best pollenizer, and when 
planted in alternate double rows with the Nonpareil will cause it to 
set fruit freely in spite of the fact that the Nonpareil begins blooming 
two weeks earlier than the Texas but still has bloom to catch the Texas 
pollen when it is ready. 

This late blooming of the Texas places it in the same class for 
surety with Drake's Seedling. Both nuts are medium soft shell and 
small but are being largely chosen because of sure bearing and large 
product. As to the relative return per sack, Mr. Dargitz says : 

The Nonpareil at 14 cents per pound, the Drake Seedhng at 11 cents per 
pound, and the Texas Prolific at 10 cents per pound, will each bring about $10.50 
per standard sack, the IXL at 13 cents per pound about $9 per sack, and the Ne 
Plus Ultra at 12 cents per pound about $8.50 per sack. 

The relative values of varieties is also shown by the prices fixed 
by the California Almond Growers' Exchange at Sacramento for the 
opening sales of the 1913 crop as follows: Nonpareil, 19c; IXL, 
183^c; Ne Plus UUra, 17>^c; Drakes, 14>^c; all f. o. b. warehouses. 



POPULAR KINDS OF ALMONDS 429 

Varieties of the Almond. — Almonds should bear well every year, 
hull easily, have clean, thin, soft shells, and a smooth, bright, and 
plump kernel. Almonds with long, single kernels are preferred in 
general to those which have double ones. These are the characters 
which ruled in the selection of new varieties by the pioneer propagator 
of new almonds, A. T. Hatch, formerly of Suisun, In 1878 Mr. Hatch 
planted out about two thousand five hundred seedling almond trees 
grown from the bitter almond seed. He afterward budded all the seed- 
lings but about three hundred which were left to bearing age unbudded. 
The fruit of these seedlings was of all degrees of excellence. A few of 
the best of them were selected for propagation and naming, and they 
constitute the chief part of the acreage which is now bearing almonds, 
but other late bloomers and sure bearers are being preferred in current 
planting. 

Excellent seedling almonds have also been produced by other 
growers. The following list includes the sorts most widely grown — 
the following being chiefly approved by growers, in the order given : 
Nonpareil, Drake's, IXL, Ne Plus Ultra, Texas Prolific, Languedoc, 
Peerless : 

IXL. — Tree a sturdy, rather upright grower, with large leaves ; nuts large 
with, as a rule, single kernels ; hulls easily, no machine being needed, nor is any 
bleaching necessary; shell soft, but perfect; largely discarded for shy bearing, 
but desirable in some places. 

Ne Plus Ultra. — Large and very long in shape; heavy and regular bearer; soft 
shell; hull free. 

Nonpareil. — First called Extra. Of a weeping style of growth ; smaller foli- 
age than the IXL, but still forms a beautiful tree. An extraordinarily heavy 
and regular bearer, with very thin shell, of the Paper Shell type. Ripens early 
and can be gathered before other varieties are ready. 

Lezvelliiig's Prolific. — Originated with the late Mr. John Lewelling; "tree a 
great bearer; of drooping habit; nut large and good; soft shell; hull free." — 
Leonard Coates. 

Harriott's Seedling (or Commercial). — From Visalia, where it is a surer crop- 
per than elsewhere ; shell softer than the Languedoc ; nut long, of peculiar shape, 
quite large ; kernel sweet. 

King's Soft Shell. — Originated in San Jose ; shell very thin and soft ; regular 
and abundant bearer. 

Princess. — The finest of the Paper Shell class ; long, oval, kernel large, white 
and sweet. 

Languedoc. — Nut large; shell thin; kernel sweet; condemned for irregular 
bearing. 

Paper Shell. — Medium size ; shell very tender, easily broken between the finger 
and thumb ; kernel large, white and sweet. 

Drake's Seedling. — Originated with Mr. Drake, of Suisun, of the Languedoc 
class; very prolific, and a regular, abundant bearer. A late blooming variety. 

Golden State. — Originated by Webster Treat. A large soft shell, somewhat 
longer than the Languedoc, with a full, smooth-skinned meat; parts from the 
hull readily. An early variety, but in less favor than formerly. 

Peerless. — Resembling IXL: Popular in Yolo County for regular and heavy 
bearing. 

Texas Prolific. — Brought from Texas by Robert Williamson, of W. R. Strong 
& Co., of Sacramento, about 1891, as a seedling originated at Dallas, and the 
only almond which would bear there. Planted at Acampo by Robert Adams, who 



430 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

had charge of the company's nurseries at that place ; fully discussed by J. P. 
Dargitz, of Acampo, and described by the introducer as resembhng Languedoc 
in tree and nut, but with softer shell, which is filled with very sweet kernel. 
Blooms two weeks later than Drake. Mr. Dargitz reports fifteen years without 
failure to bear and usually prolific. 

Jordan Almond. — This long, hard-shelled almond, notable because of its long, 
slim kernel for "salted almonds" and imported at high cost for that purpose, has 
been introduced both through government distribution and private enterprise, 
notably that of the late John Rock, of the California Nursery Co., of Niles. Too 
little has yet been seen to determine the value of the variety in local production. 
It is especially favored to the Coachella Valley. 



THE CHESTNUT 

The chestnut is not yet produced in large amount in California, 
and certain quantities of the nuts are annually imported, the American, 
Italian, or Spanish and Japanese all being found in the San Francisco 
markets. Of chestnuts grown in California, the Italian predominates, 
and the Japanese is more common than the American, which is slow 
of growth and late in fruiting, as compared with the other kinds. 
Judging the success of the Italian, it may be said that a large area of 
California is well suited for the growth of the chestnut, as there are 
bearing trees in nearly all parts of the State. The chestnut succeeds 
on heavy, clayey soil, even if it be rocky. 

Chestnut trees are readily grown from the seed, and thus grown 
come into bearing from six to eight years, though the Japanese some- 
times bear sooner. The growth of chestnuts from the seed is described 
in Chapter VIII. In growing from seed of the improved varieties, 
there is a tendency toward reversion, and budding and grafting may 
be resorted to ; and can be done by the methods described in the chap- 
ter on the fig. The chestnut can also be grafted with the ordinary 
cleft graft. Buds or scions should be taken from trees which are 
fruiting satisfactorily, and in this way seedlings which have a tendency 
to bear empty burs can be turned to good account. Chestnuts can be 
grown in the nursery until several years old, providing they are lifted 
at the end of the first year, the tap-root cut off, and the trees reset, 
giving them rather more room than during their first year's growth. 
In permanent plantings the trees should have plenty of room, as they 
ultimately attain great size. Trees at Grass Valley, Nevada county, 
when about twenty years old, fifteen inches in diameter of trunk, and 
forty feet high, and reported to bear a barrel of nuts to the tree regu- 
larly. Felix Gillet of Nevada City, has for many years made a speci- 
alty of propagating a large collection of the improved French varieties 
of the chestnut, known as Marrons, which were distributed to some 
extent. The chestnut chiefly grown is the Italian but it has not 
attained any considerable product as yet. The chestnut, aside from its 
desirability as an orchard tree, can be commended as a tree for hill- 
sides or a shade tree for waysides of pastures, and should be more 
widely planted in California. The chief product is in the foothill 
district east of the San Joaquin valley. 



FILBERTS AND PEANUTS 431 

THE FILBERT 

The best English cob-nuts have been quite widely tried in Cali- 
fornia without successful results. Improved Spanish and French 
varieties of the filbert were early introduced by Felix Gillet, of Nevada 
City, and have been favorably reported by him as to growth and bear- 
ing. A few other growers in foothill situations have reported success, 
but as a rule disappointment has attended ventures with the filbert. 
The most favorable regions for farther experiment are apparently the 
north slopes of the Coast Range, from Santa Cruz northward, and 
other cooler and moister situations, as well as at an elevation on the 
Sierra foothills where Mr. Gillet found them satisfactory. 

THE PEANUT 

During the last few years the peanut product of California has 
notably increased, and the crop is a popular one in some parts of the 
San Joaquin Valley and southern California. The nuts are consider- 
ably grown between the rows in young orchards and vineyards, as 
well as upon ground wholly given to them. The following explicit 
directions are given by R. AI. Hargrave, a grower in Orange county. 
Some slight modifications in practice may be needed, according to 
locality, as, for example, in time of planting, which is usually a little 
earlier than the date given : 

Phiiiting. — The best time to plant peanuts is about the middle of .May, say. 
10th to 15th, in rows about three to four feet apart and sixteen to twenty inches 
the other way, and not cover too deep — three to four inches. Peanuts planted 
the middle of May ripen evenly and are of uniform size. Very early peanuts 
ripen unevenly, and the first nuts that set on get so ripe they turn to a pink color, 
and if the land is a little sandy the stems get soft, lose their strength, and will 
not lift the nuts from the ground. 

It takes about thirty pounds of the California or White Virginia, and fifty 
pounds of the Tennessee Reds to plant an acre. Tennessee peanuts can be planted 
much closer in the rows. The California peanut is the best to plant, as it yields 
three or four times as much as the Tennessee Reds do, and has more ready sale. 

The Quality of Land. — Peanuts require a rich sandy soil loam that is known 
as upland. Damp land gives the nuts a straw color, and they are not as good 
probably as those raised on higher land. They require no irrigation, except on 
very sandy land, where some have found it profitable ; but, as a usual thing, when 
irrigated the ground is liable to get hard, making the nuts crooked, ill-shaped, 
and many times coloring them. 

Cultivation. — Peanuts should be cutivated about the same as corn, not allow- 
ing any weeds to grow in them, keeping the ground loose and mellow, and when 
the spikes begin to form, they should not be disturbed. If they are, it causes the 
nuts to blight or not fill out. The blooms do not require to be covered. 

Harvesting. — Peanuts should be harvested when ripe, and not allowed to 
stand too long, in hopes that the last ones set out will fill out and ripen, as you 
lose more than you gain. The little ones spoil the sale of the crop, and many are 
left in the ground that get over-ripe. Peanuts should be cut or plowed out and 
thrown into windrows, nuts down, and let lie a week or ten days, and then sacked, 
as the best nuts are cured in that way, and they do not mold so badly, and cure 
a better color. They must not be allowed to get wet. The tops are good feed if 
stored away in a shed for winter use. All kinds of stock like them, and small 
nuts can be left on the vines. They make the best chicken feed. An average 
yield is about twenty-five to thirty sacks to the acre, forty pounds to a sack, but 
many have raised fifty sacks, with extra care and good land well adapted to 



432 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

peanuts. The price for picking is from 30 to 35c per grain sack holding from 40 
to 45 pounds. The nuts are cleaned in revolving drums, and followed with a 
grain fanning mill which blows out the light ones. 

Concerning the peanut situation in California in 1914, Mr. C. E. 
Utt of Santa Ana, who has been the largest grower in the State for 
many years, gives the following specific statement.* 

My experience in growing peanuts in this State covers a period of many years. 
The last two years I was in the business I planted 400 acres each year. They 
netted me a tidy little loss, wiping out all the profits I had ever made growing 
peanuts, for occasionally the crop has proven profitable. 

A few peanuts have been grown in California in a great many localities for 
perhaps fifty years, and most of the attempts to produce them have proven un- 
profitable and been abandoned. At one time Orange County produced something 
like twenty carloads annually, now not more than one carload a year, and it is 
perfectly safe to say that peanuts will never be grown in the Pacific States to 
any appreciable extent, because the cost of production is so much higher here 
than in Japan. At one time the Pacific Coast market was supplied by peanuts 
from Virginia. About twenty years since the Japanese began importing and now 
sell over 95 per cent of the unshelled peanuts used west of the Rocky Mountains. 
Virginia still supplying the bulk of the shelled Spanish nuts. The price at which 
Japanese nuts are laid down on the wharf at San Francisco, tariff paid, ranges 
from three cents to four and one-half cents per pound. The cost of producing 
peanuts at any of the Pacific States will range from three cents up, probably 
averaging now about six cents. The price of labor in Asia will probably always 
enable them to undersell us in the market. 

Mr. Utt gives the following cultural- hints : Peanuts require sandy 
sediment to give the best results. It is better to shell the seed and plant 
one kernel in a hill, 18 inches apart in the rows which are three feet 
apart. Plant the seed two or three inches deep, in good moist earth so 
as to insure germination. Plant as soon as frosts are over, in April or 
May, as they need about six months to complete their growth. There is 
very little land that will produce crops without irrigation. If irrigation 
is necessary, it must be by the furrow method, and no flooding must be 
permitted. 

THE PECAN 

The pecan, by rapid growth, early fruiting, and general thrift, 
seems to be the member of the hickory family best fitted for California 
conditions. A tree grown from a nut planted by J. R. Wolfskill, on 
Putah Creek, in 1878, was, when twenty-five years old, over fifty feet 
high, with a trunk twelve inches in diameter, growing luxuriantly and 
bearing freely. Still older trees, also very satisfactory in growth and 
bearing, are to be seen at Chico and Visalia. The pecan, though grown 
for thirty years by different parties around the Bay of San Francisco, 
either does not bear or keeps the nuts hanging on until sometimes they 
sprout on the tree. The wider extremes in temperature or in humidity 
in the interior seem to teach the tree better habits of growth and rest, 
and moist lowlands in the great valleys seem best for pecan planting. 
As yet, California has no marketable product of pecans but the total 
number of trees in the State is insignificant. 

Pecan trees grow readily from the nuts if these are fresh. Plant- 
ers should secure nuts of selected varieties (for there is a great differ- 

*Rural Californian, March, 1914. 



Tin-: KXGLISII WALNUT 433 

ence in size and quality) direct from growers in the Soutiiern States, 
and plant as soon as received, in the early winter, or if conditions are 
not favorable for planting, the nuts should be stored as described in 
Chapter VIII. Nuts planted in good nursery ground in rows as there 
suggested, and covered about two inches or a little deeper in dry, loose 
soil, and then mulched to retain moisture, will germinate freely. The 
trees should be transplanted to permanent place at the end of the first 
year and then usually the tap-root can be retained, as some growers 
deem very desirable ; if the trees are to be put in permanent place later 
they should be transplanted in the nursery and the tap-root cut off. 
The nuts can, of course, be planted at once in permanent place if one 
will take the extra trouble necessary to properly care for them. 

Pecans are polished by putting them in a revolving barrel only 
partly filled, so that as the barrel turns they fall upon and rub each 
other producing a beautifully smooth surface. When it is desired to 
give an artificial color, a little "Spanish brown" dry paint is put into 
the barrel. If the natural coloring is desirable, a little sharp sand 
put into the barrel assists in the scouring and produces the desirable 
uniformity of color. This barrel is rigged up like a revolving churn, 
with a side door in the staves and a gudgeon on each head which is 
fitted into proper bearing on two posts ; proper arrangement being 
made for a pulley or crank by which the apparatus is turned either 
by hand or motor power. 

THE PISTACHIO 

The pistachio nut (Pistachia vera) was introduced a number of 
years ago but no results have been reported. The species upon its 
own root makes a low shrub and is slow of growth. We have also 
imported the Pistachia tcrcbinthus, from which is derived the "chio 
turpentine," the stock the true pistachio is grafted upon in Europe and 
which is growing thriftily at several points in the State. The pistachio 
needs more time to declare its California career. 



THE ENGLISH OR PERSIAN WALNUT 

The nut which is signified in California when the term walnut is 
used, is the English w^alnut or Madeira nut {Jnglans rcgia) and its 
many varieties. This tree makes a grand growth in California. Speci- 
mens are seen here and there, which, at about twenty years of age, 
are from fifty to sixty feet in height, with a spread of branches of 
forty to sixty feet, and in some cases bearing four to eight hundred 
pounds of nuts. Much larger and older trees can be found in the 
coast and interior valleys of central California where the nut was first 
planted, although, as has already been stated, the nut has thus far 
been produced in large f|uantities only in regions adjacent to the coast 
in southern California. The equable temperature and moisture of the 
southern coast seems* to specially favor the nut, but it must not be 
inferred that success can only be attained in such situations. A num- 
ber of French varieties, which have been widely enough distributed to 



434 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

test their growth, have been found to thrive in many situations where 
the old Los Angeles variety is a failure, and there is at present quite 
a disposition to larger plantings of the walnut in all California valleys, 
either as a sole occupant of the land or as border trees around fruit 
orchards. At the South the walnut area has largely increased in 
those situations where the tree shows most satisfactory bearing qual- 
ities, and newer varieties of California origin, like the Improved Soft 
Shell, constitute most of the present area. In all untried places, or in 
all places where the old Los Angeles Walnut has failed, trial should 
be made of the hardy French varieties, which will be described farther 
on. Recently considerable planting has been done in the coast and 
interior valleys and foothills of central California upon the quite fully 
demonstrated success of these varieties. It is, however, very desirable 
to secure satisfactory depth and retentiveness, without excess of water, 
in the soil. The walnut, on its own seedling root, abhors drouth as 
well as standing water. 

Soils for the Walnut. — The walnut makes most rapid growth 
upon a deep, rich, moist, loamy soil, and shows its appreciation of good 
things of the earth as do other fruit trees, and yet it attains satisfactory 
size and bearing in less favorable situations. Thriving trees can be 
found in the clays and decomposed granite soils of the foothills, as 
well as in the valley silts and loams. Adequate moisture must, how- 
ever, be had, and the walnut cannot be commended for dry, neglected 
places nor for soils which overlie leachy subsoils described on page 33. 

Propagation. — The walnut tree grows readily from nuts treated 
as described in Chapter VIII. In the main the use of seedlings has 
hitherto prevailed, and the nut has been looked upon as coming 
sufficiently true from seed. Recently, however, this has changed rap- 
idly, and budding or grafting to secure a high, uniform grade and to 
secure fruitfulness in spite of the blight is commanding wide atten- 
tion. In growing young trees it is being considered desirable to bud 
or graft rather high so as to get a trunk of the hardier variety which 
is used as a stock. 

Excellent results have been obtained by using the California black 
as a stock for the English walnut, and in that case budding or grafting 
must be resorted to. Many instances of the success of the English 
v.^alnut on our native stock might be cited, but the most notable tree 
known to the writer is to be seen on the grounds of John R. Wolfskill, 
on Putah Creek, in Solano county. He put in a bud in 1875 and the 
tree has reached immense size and large product. Since then many 
large native black walnuts have been top-grafted with the English 
walnut with notable success, not only in orchards, but along highways 
where the native black walnut has been planted for shade and 
ornament. 

Mr. F. S. Leib, of San Jose, who has given much attention to stocks 
for the English walnut, believes that the cross of the California black 
and the Eastern black walnuts, and the California black walnut straight, 
afford the best seedlings for roots for the English walnut, but advises 
close selection to secure the best growth. This is his prescription : 



BUDDING THE WALNUT 435 

"The Royal hybrid (every cross between the native Eastern black 
walnut and the native California black walnut is called a Royal hybrid), 
is, in my opinion, the most magnificent growing tree in the walnut line, 
and I believe that in the future some Royal hybrids can, by persistent 
selection, be sufficiently fixed to furnish the strongest possible roots of 
substantial uniformity on which to graft. At present I know of only 
one tree, i)ickcd out from many hundreds, which is sufficiently fixed to 
grow a fair percentage of seedlings equal to itself. Only from one to 
two per cent of the seedlings of most Royal hybrids is equal to the 
parent, and the percentage of even the best straight California is only 
from fifteen to twenty per cent, and the poorest give less than one 
per cent. 

"At present, we. by a system of sprouting, are able to eliminate 
four-fifths of the weakest growing nuts, and we plant the remaining 
fifth in the nursery. Twenty-five per cent of such remaining nuts from 
our selected trees of Royal hybrid blood, and fifteen to twenty per cent 
from our selected California trees, grow three to four feet in the first 
year. The three to four foot seedlings in the nursery are grafted when 
one year old, and the remaining smaller trees are left for another year; 
and for this reason a small per cent make a disproportionately large 
growth of root compared to its moderate top the first year, and make 
an immense growth of top the second year. 

"All Paradox hybrids (English walnuts crossed with California 
black), make a large root and but a moderate top the first year, as do 
many seedlings from the Royal hybrid, and as do very, very few from 
the straight California. These few trees, which make good the second 
year, three or four per cent, possibly, of the trees left to grow another 
year in the nursery, are grafted at the end of the second year, and the 
balance thrown away as unworthy to be grafted and given a chance 
in orchard form ; for a tree which is to have in the orchard from 
sixteen hundred to thirty-six hundred square feet can not be too good, 
cither as a root or top." 

Budding the Walnut. — In working on the native California 
seedling stocks, Mr. Clowes, of Stockton, buds by the common method, 
removing the wood from the inside of the plate of bark, as advised for 
the orange. Twig buds as used with the olive are also successful, and 
ring budding works well on shoots of a year's growth, which have at 
least attained the thickness of the middle finger. Mr. Gillct advises 
that the buds should be set at the base of these shoots where the wood 
is perfectly round. The bandage should pass above and below the bud 
so that the bark under it may be pressed down close upon the stock, 
and this is more surely gained by shaving ofT the base of the leaf 
stem, below the bud, about to the point where it would separate when 
the leaf naturally falls ofT. 

Mr. A. W. Keith, of Selma, has hit upon a very interesting method 
of preparing walnut buds. In taking a fresh bud from the new growth 
of the walnut he found the large leaf stem a serious impediment in 
firmly placing a shield bud upon the cambium of the stock and binding 
it there. Shaving it away with a knife left too much exposed tissue. 
If the leaf stem would drop off as it does when mature and leave a 



436 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

healed-over scar, the result would be a flat surface with only the bud 
protruding, and this could be easily bound in place so as to exclude the 
air. He tried cutting off the compound leaf, leaving a stub of an inch 
or so, and was delighted to find that a stub thus left became dry and 
parted from the stem just as a mature leaf does in the autumn. By 
cutting off the leaves in this way about August 15, the stubs part read- 
ily before September 1, and then he takes oft' clean, flat buds and uses 
them just as he does in budding the peach, except that he leaves no 
wood behind the bud. He takes rather a large shield and puts in 
under the bark of the stock through a "T" cut, then wraps well with 
a strip of cheese cloth and waxes over the cloth with ordinary grafting 
wax. The vvTapping is applied so as to cover most of the bark slit, 
everything beyond being waxed over. The bud is then allowed to 
remain dormant until the following spring. 

Mr. Pennington of Vacaville has been very successful in budding 
by cutting buds in the regular shield form, about 1^ inches long, cut 
from branches ^ to ^ inch in diameter, so as to get wide buds with 
but little wood left in them. He also prefers to have stocks large, and 
considers a stock 1^-2 inches in diameter not too large. He uses ordi- 
nary budding twine for tying, but does not use wax to cover the inci- 
sions. He says it is best to put off budding as late as it is possible to 
get a good flow of sap, as then the weather is likely to be cooler, 
which is an important factor, and the growing season is about finished, 
which will allow the twine to be left in place all winter, which he 
considers advisable. 

Buds are more apt to succeed when pushed upward from the cross- 
cut than downward from it. The cuts would then be an inverted "T." 
No preparation of the budding wood is made, except that mature buds 
are taken. About 90 per cent of the buds placed are said to grow. 

Spring budding can be done much more successfully if the bud 
sticks are cut while dormant, in February, and kept in a cool place 
until the trees begin to grow. The bud sticks will have also shown 
life, and the buds can be taken from them in the usual manner and 
inserted in the growing stocks. These buds will begin to grow at 
once and frequently make a growth of four to six feet during the 
season. As soon as the buds show they have united with the stock, 
the stock should be cut above the bud and waxed. 

Grafting the Walnut. — Grafting into black walnut seedling root 
can also be well done by a triangular cut into the edge of the root 
stump, as described for grafting into grape-vine stumps in Chapter 
XXVI. In the case of the walnut, close binding with a wax band is 
desirable. 

Large walnut trees can be worked over either by budding or graft- 
ing. If by budding, the large limbs are cut back in the winter, and in 
autumn following, buds are put in, as just described, on as many of 
the new shoots as may be desired. 

In grafting, the common cleft graft is used with a degree of suc- 
cess, particularly when the split is not made through the pith, but at 
one side ; the scion should be whittled so as to show as little pith as 
possible. This is done by cutting down to a point at one side and not 



GRAFTING THE WALNUT 437 

in tlic center of the scion. Care should be taken to cover all exposed 
surfaces. 

Grafting over is desirable either for substituting a better variety of 
I'ni^lish walnut, or for working over a California black walnut into an 
iCnglish variety, and as much attention is now being paid to blight 
resistant, interest is sharpened in grafting methods. ^Ir. J. B. Neff, 
of Anaheim, who has looked into the subject deeply and worked 
over- many old trees, gives the following practical suggestions on this 
work : 

If the trees are from three to five inches in diameter they may be cut off at 
about four feet above the ground and below the branches, then four or five scions 
may be placed in one stock, or three or four of the branches may be cut back to 
within 10 to 24 inches of the trunk and two or three scions placed in each. All 
the other branches should be removed from the trunk. 

Old trees of from 12 to 20 years should have the branches cut at places where 
they are from three to six inches in diameter, and from five to eight stubs left, 
which will be from three to six feet in length and should have as many as six 
scions in the large stubs, the other branches being removed before the scions are 
put in place. 

In sawing large branches it is necessary to make two cuts, the first being 
some distance above or outside the final cut, to prevent splitting the stub, or the 
trunk, when the severed part falls. 

The scion should always be of solid, mature wood, that is, with as small pith 
as can be had readily, and must have good living buds. Each scion should be 
about one-quarter inch in diameter and have at least two buds. The growth 
having buds close together is best, as shorter scions can be used. 

To receive the scions use a heavy butcher knife and mallet to split the stubs, 
placing the knife across the stub as if a chip one-half tn hve-cighths-inch thick 
was to be taken off. Then depress the handle of the knife to an angle of 30 to 
45 degrees and split the edge down to 2j/2 to 3 inches, allowing the knife to 
reach the farther side of the stub, but not making the split entirely across the 
stub. Open the cleft with an iron wedge ^ to 5^-inch wide and thickest on one 
edge, placing the thickest edge toward the outside. 

Trim the cleft in the stub with a sharp knife so it will be smooth. Then 
cut the scion so as to fit perfectly and place it so the inner bark (the cambium 
layer) of both will be on the same line, or at least will cross twice, then remove 
the wedge and put hot wax over all the cuts on both stock and scion at once. 

The scions should be examined frequently and any excessive flow of sap 
wiped off, and the stub re-covcrcd with wax as soon as dry. Kxcessive flow of 
sap for several weeks will cause the loss of the scions, as the callus can not form 
in water. This may be controlled by tjoring one-fourth inch holes in the body of 
the tree near the ground. Three or four holes four inches deep will be suflicient 
to control the flow of the largest trees. No damage is done to the body of the 
tree, as the holes soon grow over. 

The last two wax formulas on page 78 are largely used in walnut 
grafting. For grafting in the stems of seedlings or in the smaller 
branches of young trees a side graft as described on page 80 is success- 
fully used as are also several styles of cleft grafting. One which is 
used by Mr. R. Wiltz and others at San Jose consist in splitting a short 
stub of a small branch which has been cut about four inches from its 
attachment to a larger branch of stem. In this case the split can only 
extend to the closely knit wood in the crotch and the scion is pushed 
down strongly to the bottom of such a split and it is held tightly. The 
two pieces of the deep split are not cut away but are allowed to protect 
the short scion which fS between them and if buds start on these pieces 
they are allowed to grow a little to keep the stock from dying back. 
When the scion starts well they are removed. 



438 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

A method of side grafting (so called because the stock is not cut 
across but a cleft made in the side of it) has been very successfully 
practiced by Mr. Weinshank, of Whittier, both with nursery seedlings 
and on branches of large trees. His work has shown eighty to ninety 
per cent successful in the nursery and even more on branches of large 
trees. The following is a condensed description of the method : 

The scion is prepared as for a whip graft (page 81), cutting a cross 
obliquely and making another cut right straight down with the grain 
in the scion. Then, instead of cutting the stock completely across like 
the scion, just simply make a little cut on the side. Do not cut into the 
pith of the wood at all. Then, place the two together by pushing the 
tongue of the scion (made by the cut on its shorter side) into the lip 
cut in the stock ; tie with a string and wax over. The same method on 
larger trees is performed exactly in the same way, except that the lip 
of course on the larger limbs, which are three or four inches through, 
would be considerably larger, and the scion instead of being placed 
directly in the middle of the lip, or in the center, would be placed on 
the side so as to have the cambium of the scion connecting with the 
cambium on the stock at least on one side. Three or four, or sometimes 
five scions are put on a large limb, and in most cases three or four 
scions would grow. After the scion has reached a certain stage of 
growth, this string will commence to bind, and must be cut down right 
over where the scion is. The wax on either side will tend to hold the 
string, but as the wood naturally grows, the strings will draw apart, 
and it will not bind as it would if the string was not cut. 

Side grafting with a saw-cut, as described for the peach on page 
243, also works well with the walnut. 

Treatment After Grafting. — A fuller account of the protection 
of scions after setting and during their early growth is given by 
Mr. Edwin Gower of Fowler, Fresno County, thus explicitly : 

Take two folds of burlap, punch holes for the scions to pass through, making 
a hood inclosing and covering the entire stump, letting it extend down the sides 
a short distance; tie a string around the stump to hold it in place; by using 
this method the wax will remain in perfect condition. In valleys, where the wax 
melts, a portion of the stump is exposed and runs down the crevices, destroying 
the tender tissues of the scion. 

After the scion is growing rapidly, cut the string; do not remove it. This 
allows the scion to grow without the string cutting it. If small trees, drive a 
stake down to tie the new growth. On old trees nail four sticks equal distances 
apart around the stump, letting the sticks extend four or five feet beyond the 
stump, wrap some string around these sticks ; this acts as a net enclosing the 
growth of the scion, which grows phenomenally on black walnut. I have seen 
instances where they grow fifteen feet in one year. This net acts as a support 
and keeps the scion from either breaking or splitting off by the winds. It is 
sometimes advisable to nip off the end of the branches to check the growth. Cut 
them back vigorously for two or three years, until such time as they are well 
attached to the stump. 

I have used the bark graft, also the cleft graft, but I prefer the former, as the 
scion seems to grow more rapidly and reach maturity sooner. 

Planting Walnut Orchards. — There is much difference in prac- 
tice in planting out walnut trees in permanent place. Some advocate 
the use of trees two or three years from the seed, getting as much of 
the tap-root as possible ; others allow the tree to remain in nursery 



PLANTING THE WALNUT 439 

until it throws out laterals, which is usually done the fourth or fifth 
year. Two-year-old trees are generally preferred, but walnut trees of 
many times that age can be successfully transplanted if the work is 
carefully done. Walnut trees are usually set forty feet in squares, 
though some give the large-growing varieties fifty feet. Planting in 
hexagonals at forty-five feet distance gives very satisfactory results. 
Some growers plant in squares at thirty feet distance, intending to re- 
move alternate trees as they crowd each other, first cutting back, for 
a time, the trees which are finally to be removed. 

On the Bishop Ranch in the La Patera section of Santa I»arbara 
County several years ago, every other walnut tree was cut out of a 
twenty-five-year-old grove, the trees originally being set twenty-five 
feet apart. The advantages were at once apparent, the grove yielding 
ten per cent more the following season than they did under the old 
system and the crops have been getting better ever since. Sixty feet 
is about close enough for mature trees in a walnut grove and when the 
ground is so shaded that the sun and air cannot penetrate the trees 
will not thrive. 

Intercultures with the Walnuts. — In the southern walnut regions 
it is common to grow beans, squashes, etc., between the rows of trees 
•until the latter reach bearing age ; root crops which attract gophers 
should be avoided. Inter-planting of smaller, early-fruiting trees is 
also practiced to a considerable extent. 

Walnuts in Alfalfa. — Dr. W. W. Fitzgerald, of Stockton, an ex- 
perienced propagator and planter of w'alnuts, says : 

To my mind, walnuts and alfalfa, on proper soil, are a very desirable com- 
bination. While your walnut trees are growing you get good and quick returns 
from your alfalfa. The roots of the alfalfa loosen up the soil, carrying nitrogen 
with them to improve its condition. But on light soil, which is best for alfalfa, 
the walnuts do not do so well, and on heavier ground you have to be careful to 
have good drainage. One should by all means use the Royal Hybrid root when 
growing walnuts with alfalfa. 

On heavy land it is best to plant the trees and let them grow one year before 
planting alfalfa, thus avoiding the danger of waterlogging the roots on recently 
planted trees in irrigating alfalfa. A strip should be cultivated on each side 
of the walnut rows, or a space dug round the trees to prevent the alfalfa from 
growing close to the tree, which would be a detriment. 

Before planting the walnuts, the land should be leveled so as to irrigate nicely, 
and more especially if it is to be interplanted with alfalfa or berries. With alfalfa 
the checks should be spaced at the distance you wish to plant the trees. 

Pruning the Walnut — The walnut is usually headed higher than 
ordinary orchard trees, but preference is now given to starting the first 
branch at about four feet from the ground instead of six feet as for- 
merly. All the pruning needed is in shaping the tree as described for 
the fig. Upward trend of the branches should be secured, sometimes 
by cutting out the shoots which grow downward, sometimes by tying 
them up for a time to the central stem until they are stiff enough to re- 
tain this position. Placing branches on the stem according to the prin- 
ciples advanced in Chapter XTT, should be borne in mind. The stem 
shoidd be protected from simburn until the foliage accomplishes this. 
W^henevcr shoots arc killed back bv sunburn or frost, they should be 
cut off cleanly below the black mark which shows how far the injury 



440 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

has extended. If this is done, the die-back down the branch is usually 
prevented. As the trees become older, removal of some of the interior 
limbs may be desirable to admit more light to encourage inside bearing. 

Cutting Back for a Strong Start. — Dr. Fitzgerald gives specific 
suggestions for starting the young tree by cutting back at planting, 
rather than trusting to the growth in nursery, as follows : 

Previous to planting, the tops of the trees should be cut off from 12 to 15 
inches above the ground, according to the number of buds on the lowest part of 
the trunk of the tree, and the cut waxed. After these buds make a growth of 
four to six inches, select the most thrifty one to make the butt for the future 
tree and pinch off the tops of each of the other limbs. This will stop their growth 
and leave them with a few leaves to shade the butt of the tree. 

When cutting trees back this way, it is absolutely necessary, especially on 
the strong-growing hybrid root, to sucker your trees often until the top gets 
a good start. You should dig down four to six inches around the tree to cut 
off each sucker close with a sharp knife, for if you break them off, adventitious 
buds will start out again and by cutting them off with a sharp knife you will 
remove all these buds. This should be done the first time just as soon as the 
buds begin to swell on any of the trees, and every tree should be suckered, for if 
you allow these sucker buds to start, being lower than those of the graft, they 
get the first sap and oftentimes prevent the buds above from starting. This 
suckering should be done about once every ten days, or just as sure as you let the 
suckers grow, they will keep back the growth above the graft or will prevent it 
starting altogether. 

The tree will probably make a growth of four to twelve feet the first season. 
The next year it will not make growth in height, but will throw its side branches. 
Some think it necessary to cut off the top of a tree to make it branch out, but 
my experience has been that if you will leave the tree alone two or three years, 
it will throw out its side limbs and make a perfect tree. The only pruning that 
is necessary is to cut off the limbs that are too low and any limbs that cross and 
would chafe against each other. 

After the tree gets older and is bearing, the limbs of the tree should be pruned 
to open up in the center, allowing the sun and air to go through the tree, the same 
as with other fruit trees. With some trees that are inclined to go to wood and 
do not throw out enough fruit buds, you may cut back one-third of the limbs, 
which causes them to throw out new limbs on which the fruit buds form. 

Bloom and Bearing of the Walnut. — The walnut has its stam- 
inate and pistillate blooms separate, but both occur on the same tree. 
Successful fruiting depends upon the appearance of these two forms 
of bloom, without too great interval of time, and although there seems 
to be a quite a retention of vitality, the lack of bearing of some varieties 
has been found to be due to the fact that the catkins disappear too long 
before the pistillate bloom was sufficiently developed to receive the 
pollen. 

The bearing age of the walnut depends upon the variety. Some of 
the French varieties are very precocious and have borne fruit in nursery 
row at two and three years old, but the pistillate blooms were then 
fertilized from catkins growing on older trees. The practical bearing 
age of the seedling English walnut in this State may be rated at six to 
eight years, according to the variety. Trees grafted with scions from 
bearing trees fruit much sooner. 

Harvesting Walnuts. — Gathering walnuts is done in different 
ways ; some gather them from the ground at intervals during the months 
of September and October ; others use poles and clean the trees at one 
operation ; some go over the ground three times ; first, picking up what 



HARVESTING WALNUTS 441 

have fallen ; second, picking up what have fallen and striking the limbs 
lightly to dislodge others which are ripest ; third, picking up again and 
then knocking off all that remain on the trees. In this way gathering 
lasts a month or six weeks. Walnuts, after gathering, are treated by 
some growers as described by F. E. Kellogg, of Santa Barbara County : 

As fast as gathered the nuts are placed in slat-bottomed traj's, 6x3 feet, by 
six inches deep, about fifty pounds in a tray, being thoroughly shaken up once or 
twice a day. If the weather is very hot. they should be dried in the shade. When 
the nuts are dry they are passed through an inclined revolving grader, making 
about twelve revolutions per minute, having a one-inch mesh wire screen, and 
all that fall through this are called "seconds." The lower end of the grader 
dips into vat of water, thoroughly wetting the nuts and washing thcni to a 
certain extent — entirely sufficient for paper shells and soft shells, and usually 
enough for hard shells. A system of buckets attached to the drum of the grader 
then elevates the nuts to a chute, which discharges them into a large box 4x4x8 
feet high, with an inclined slat bottom two and one-half feet above the ground. 
While in this box they are subjected to the fumes of sulphur for twenty to thirty 
minutes for the purpose of improving the color. The second grade walnuts are 
also put through the washing and sulphuring process. The nuts are next drawn 
off from the bleachers into the drying trays, piled one on top of the other, to 
prevent the sun from shining directly on the nuts, and remain there for ten or 
twelve hours, until the nuts are thoroughly dried off. The trays are then emptied 
into a hopper, from which the nuts are drawn off into bags containing something 
over one hundred pounds each ; the bags are securely sewed up and stamped 
with the producer's brand, and the nuts are ready for shipment. 

Col. A. S. Heath, of Carpinteria, uses a moist bleach and a drier 
afterward, as follows: 

When the nuts leave the rotary washer they are entirely free of hulls and 
clean. They are taken to the bleaching boxes, and here subjected to the very 
minimum amount of sulphur necessary, and cold steam, being in the bleachers 
about one hour. From the bleachers they are taken to the steam drier. In the 
drier are 100 drawers, each capable of holding 40 to 50 pounds of walnuts. These 
drawers have wire bottoms to allow the heat to pass through them. In the 
basement beneath the drier Mr. Heath has some modern furnaces constructed, 
.-md during the course of the drying about 130 degrees of heat is m.-iintaincd. 
The nuts are kept under this heat for eight hours. During the drying it is pos- 
sible to watch the progress by pulling out drawers for inspection. 

J. B. Neff, of Anaheim, describes large handling of walnuts as 
follows : 

The nuts are allowed to ripen and the hulls open on the trees. If the 
trees have had sufficient irrigation and the weather is normal, a large part of the 
nuts will fall clean from the hulls and will have to be picked off the ground once 
a week in dry weather, but should be gathered oftener in damp weather. The 
gathering can be hastened by gently jarring the branches with a pole which has 
a light flat steel hook on the end. The hook is passed over the branch and pulled 
quickly so as to jar the branch without swinging it. Any hulls that cling to the 
nuts may be taken off by hand. The nuts are placed in trays made of sides 1 by 6 
in. by 6 ft. and ends 1 by 6 in. by 2 ft. 10 in., with laths V2 inch apart for bottoms. 
The sides are allowed to project for handles, and the tray measures 3 to 5 feet. 
The imperfect nuts are picked out and the good nuts dried in the shade when the 
weather is hot. Damp localities require some artificial heat, but care must be 
taken to have only a mild heat, as the nuts will be damaged if high temperatures 
are maintained. 

Grading and bleaching is usually done in the Association warehouses, as con- 
siderable outlay for apparatus is required and some experience is necessary to 
get the best results. When the nuts are thoroughly dried they are passed 
through a revolving screen having meshes ^4 inch square at the upper end and 
1 inch square at the lower end. The small meshes take out the dirt, and the 



442 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

1-inch meshes take out the small nuts, which are called No. 2 nuts, while those 
going over the screen are known as No. 1 nuts. The bleaching is done either 
by dipping or spraying, using a solution made of five pounds of salt in 100 pounds 
of water and passing the solution through an electric cell with a current of 95 
to 110 volts and at a temperature of 90 to 95° F., the variation depending on the 
purity of the salt. 

Varieties of the Walnut* — Of walnuts of California origin there 
are two classes, which are called "hard" and "soft" shell, but the ac- 
cepted commercial product is largely composed of the soft-shell class. 
Several varieties of French walnuts are now being widely distributed. 
An attempt will be made to give some of the distinctive points of each 
variety mentioned : 

Common English Walnut; Los Angeles Nut, etc. — This is the ordinary Eng- 
lish walnut of commerce. It was planted at an early day in Los Angeles County, 
but is now largely replaced by the Improved Soft Shell. 

Santa Barbara Soft Shell; Sexton's Soft Shell. — Originated by Joseph Sex- 
ton, who gives this account of its origin and characteristics : "The winter of 1867 
I bought in San Francisco a large sack of English walnuts. I raised about one 
thousand trees that season, and planted two hundred of them the following 
spring, in orchard form, at Goleta. Sixty of them proved to be the soft-shell 
variety. The soft shell is a little later in starting in the spring than the common 
nut, and blooms about ten days later. It commences to fruit at six years old 
from the seed, and some have been known to fruit as young as the fourth year. 
The hard shell commences to fruit about the ninth year, and bears full crops 
alternate years. The soft shell is not as strong a grower as the other walnut; it 
being so prolific, retards its growth. It is a superior nut; the kernel is white. 
The shell is thin, rendering them easily broken by the hand, at the same time 
strong enough to bear transportation to any part of the United States." 

Ford's Improved Soft Shell. — G. W. Ford, of Santa Ana, propagated an "Im- 
proved Soft Shell," gained by selection from the variety of Joseph Sexton, which 
has been largely planted. 

Santa Rosa. — A seedUng by Luther Burbank, which has been distributed quite 
widely; but by variation in its seedling, its character is somewhat ill-defined and 
the name is applied to several types, some of which are less desirable than the 
one receiving the name. 

Proeparturiens. — Introduced in California in 1871, by the late Felix Gillet, of 
Nevada City, and afterward by other parties, and widely distributed. Its chief 
characteristic, as its name indicates, is early bearing. It blooms from two to 
four weeks later than the common Los Angeles seedling; it shows both kinds of 
bloom simultaneously, and has the characteristics of ripening its wood well, and 
is a good nut, but it has been little planted recently because of its disposition to 
run to small sizes. 

Mayctte. — This variety chiefly constitutes the imported Grenoble walnuts. It 
is large, roundish, with a broad base, on which the nut will sit up ; shell thin and 
white ; kernel full and rich ; a good bearer and late bloomer ; local Mayette seed- 
lings are being named; one is the "San Jose," by R. Wihz, of San Jose — a fine 
nut, believed to be blight resistant. 

Cowcor^f.— Seedling of Cluster : of the Mayette type, grown by Messrs. West- 
gate and Hutchinson of Concord from seedling tree by Felix Gillet. Introduced 
by Mr. Leonard Coates in 1908. Claimed to be blight resistant. 

Franquette.—Th.ii French variety has risen to great favor and has been 
largely planted upon the successful experience of Mrs. Emily M. Vrooman, of 
Santa Rosa, and the extensive effort at its distribution by the Oregon Nursery 



*The fullest account of English walnut varieties grown in California, historical and 
descriptive, is given in Bulletin 231, University Experiment Station, Berkeley, by R. E. 
Smith. Unfortunately the publication is out of print and must be consulted in libraries. 



WALNUTS POPULAR IN CALIFORNIA 443 

Co., of Salcni, Ore. It is a large, elongate-oval nut with shell rather thick and 
kernel of high quality. It is a late bloomer, and escapes blight to a certain 
extent. 

Bijou Sccdli)i;^s. — Several of these are being grown. Willson's Wonder, in- 
troduced by F. C. Willson, of Santa Clara, is a large, smooth, desirable nut, and 
the tree is reported an early and prolific bearer. 

Other French Varieties. — Other French varieties introduced by Mr. Gillet and 
others include the following: The Cluster, which fruits, as its name indicates, 
in long I)unchcs. sometimes as many as fifteen in a bunch; otherwise the tree 
resembles the common English walnut. The Parisienne is a beautiful variety, the 
nut large, broad, and shapely ; the tree blooms very late. All the foregoing 
varieties and the Franquette, Serotina, Barthere, Mcsange, Cant and Chaberte, 
were introduced by Mr. Gillet in 1871. 

Kaghazi. — A variety called Kaghazi was grown and propagated for several 
years by the late James Shinn, of Niles, who described it as follows: "Very 
much larger than the ordinary kinds, and thinner shelled. The tree is late in 
putting out leaves and blossoms, and is, therefore, especially good for places that 
are in danger of late frosts." 

Japanese Walnut; Juglans Sieboldiana. — This species, native of the north of 
Japan, was introduced to California about 1860, and a tree grown from seed 
planted about that time is growing at the Tower House, in Shasta County. 
Recently the good points of the tree have been more widely recognized. The 
following excellent description is by Luther Burbank, of Santa Rosa: "This 
species is found growing wild :n the mountains of northern Japan, and is, with- 
out doubt, as hardy as an oak. The leaves are of immense size, and a charming 
shade of green. The nuts, which are produced in extreme abundance, grow in 
clusters of fifteen or twenty, have a shell thicker than the English walnut, but 
not as thick as the black walnut, very much resembling pecan nuts. The meat is 
sweet, of the very best quality, flavor like butternut, but less oily, and much 
superior. The trees grow with great vigor, assume a very handsome form, need 
no pruning, mature early, bear young, and are more regular and productive than 
the English walnut." The nut has an exceedingly hard shell and does not rate 
commercially with the popular varieties of the English walnut. 

Varieties Popular in California. — Since the walnut blight in- 
vaded the comtnercial orchards and resisted all remedies tried against 
it, great interest has arisen in particular trees which bore well in spite 
of the disease. As California has such a large acreage of seedling 
trees there was a full opportunity for the full manifestation of such re- 
sistance and a wide field in which to exercise the art of selection. The 
result is that many trees were found which were profitable even when 
the blight is worst, and such trees are being given distinct varietal 
names. The progress of this work should be watched in the publica- 
tions of the University E.xpcrinicnt Station at Berkeley, for the experts 
at its branch laboratory and trial grounds in the walnut region of 
southern California, at Whittier. Los Angeles County, have been largely 
engaged in this work. Individual growers are alert at selection within 
their own orchards and the prospect is that a general escape from the 
blight and the establishment in our local pomology of a group of 
especially desirable varieties will ere long be attained. This proposition 
is fully discussed in Bulletin 231 by Prof. R. E. Smith, as already cited. 
Briefly it may be stated that these six are now most popular, according 
to reports of planters; 

Eureka, Franquette. Mayette, Concord, Placentia Perfection, El 
Monte. 



444 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Bulletin 231 says, "The Eureka comes very close to satisfying the 
requirements of an ideal walnut for California. It is a fine large nut 
of strikingly handsome appearance, extra full meat and weight, per- 
fectly sealed, light colored meat, fine flavor, marked immunity to dis- 
ease, a strong, vigorous grower and ultimately a heavy producer." 

Of varieties named above as most popular the order of excellence, 
without regard to bearing habit of the tree, is as follows: 1. Eureka. 
2. Franquette. 3. El Monte. 4. Disher's ProHfic. 5. San Jose. 6. 
Chase. 7. Concord. The first three were about on a par and well ahead 
of the others. Placentia Perfection is an elegant nut, but is very subject 
to blight, though still in high favor with some planters. 



PART EIGHT: FRUIT PRESERVATION 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 
FRUIT CANNING, CRYSTALLIZING, AND DRYING 

The preservation of fruit in various ways for home use and distant 
shipment, is one of the leading industries of CaUfornia, employing a 
large amount of capital and labor, and distributing a vast amount of 
money among our people. These facts can be best emphasized by 
statements of the product of 1913, in the leading methods of preserva- 
tion, by canning and drying : 

Canned Fruit Product of 1913. 

Cases. 

Table fruits, 2j^-lb. cans, 24 per case 4,204,070 

Pie fruits, 1-gal. cans, 12 per case 629,830 

Total equal to 122,571,560 2K-lb. cans, or 4,833,900 

The relative use of different fruits is as follows : 

Cases. 

Apples 80.250 

Apricots 898.005 

Cherries, black 56,720 

Cherries, white 295,175 

Grapes 46,915 

Pears 874.200 

Peaches, freestone 583.800 

Peaches, clingstone 1,630.255 

Plums 175.290 

Strawberries 34.470 

Raspberries 9.090 

Blackberries 103^005 

Loganberries 21.370 

Miscellaneous (figs, nectarines, quinces, currants, gooseberries) 2.290 



THE CANNING INDUSTRY 

California stands first in the United States in the value of canned 
and dried fruits produced and in the amount of money as wages paid 
for labor in fruit canning and curing establishments. In point of 
capital invested therein California is credited by the United States 
census office in 1905 with a total of ten and one-quarter million dollars ; 
thus standing second ftnly to New York, which has ten and one-half 
millions. The style and capacity of the establishments is characteristic- 
ally Californian, because California's ten millions are invested in 184 
445 



446 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

concerns, while New York has 565 concerns ; only a quarter of a million 
more value in three times as many outfits. 

Fruit canning began in California over fifty years ago, but during 
the last three decades has attained its greatness, and is still promising 
much wider extension. The process is simple, and yet is attended at 
every point, from the purchase of the fruit, to the sale of the product, 
with operations which require experience, wisdom and good judgment. 
It will be obviously impossible to give in print a guide to the pursuit 
of such an industry. The principles involved in the process of com- 
mercial canning are, of course, the same as rule in the old kitchen pro- 
cesses, but to secure uniformity and cheapness of product a vast number 
of manipulations and labor ; saving appliances have been devised. These 
begin with the manufacture of cans and attend the product to the end, 
and the realization of the commercial and uniform production which 
they assure involves the employment of large capital and the keenest 
business ability.* The canning interest has, therefore, segregated itself 
more and more widely from the growing interest. Orchard canning 
on a small scale, which was once thought feasible, has passed out of 
sight except as it is seen to lie in the foundations of a few of the 
smaller canneries which have been built upon it. It seems clear now 
that as a rule the fruit grower's duty to the canning interest ceases with 
the production of acceptable fruit unless individuals or associations can 
command capital enough to enter the field on equal vantage with the 
large commercial canneries. Capital is flowing toward the business ; 
the field for the product seems to be constantly expanding, and canning 
centers are multiplying throughout the State wherever ample supplies 
of good fruits and vegetables are available. 

Varieties for Canning. — The table previously given showing the 
fruits which enter in various amounts into the canned product gives 
a general idea of what fruits should be planted to minister to the can- 
ner's demand. As to varieties, it is not easy to make a general pre- 
scription, because the choice differs somewhat with different localities. 
It is a good idea for the new planter to consult with owners of adja- 
cent bearing orchards and to secure from the nearest canneries lists of 
varieties which are acceptable to them. 

CRYSTALLIZED FRUITS 

Progress is being continually made in the production of candied, 
crystallized, or glace fruits, but the product is not a large one. Special 
establishments are now doing this work in Los Angeles, San Jose and 
San Francisco. They have processes which are the result of consider- 
able experimentation, and they do not make them public. To others 
the way lies open to similar experimentation. The general theory and 
an outline of practice as given by J. J. Pratt, an experienced processor, 
is as follows : 

The theory is to extract the juice from the fruit, and replace it with sugar 
syrup, which, upon hardening, preserves the fruit from decay, and at the same 

*A detailed account of the operations and outfit of a typical California cannery is given 
in the Pacific Rural Press of March 22 and 29, 1913. 



CRYSTALLIZED AND DRIED FRUITS 447 

time retains the natural shape of the fruit. All kinds of fruit arc capable of 
being preserved under this process. Though the method is very simple, there is 
a certain skill required that is acquired only by practice. The several successive 
steps in the process are about as follows: 

First, the same care in selecting and grading the fruit should be taken as for 
canning; that is, the fruit should all be of one size, and as near the same ripe- 
ness as possible. The exact degree of ripeness is of great importance, wliich is at 
that stage when fruit is best for canning; peaches, pears, etc., are pared and cut 
in halves, as for canning; plums, cherries, etc., are pitted. The fruit, having thus 
been carefully prepared, is put into a basket, or a bucket with a perforated bot- 
tom, and immersed in boiling water. The object of this is to dilute and extract 
the juice of the fruit. The length of time the fruit is immerced is the most im- 
portant part of the process. If left too long, it is overcooked, and becomes soft; 
if not immersed long enough, the juice is not sufficiently extracted, which pre- 
vents a perfect absorption of the sugar. 

After the fruit has been thus scalded and allowed to cool, it can again be 
assorted as to softness. The next step is the syrup, which is made of white 
sug-ar and water. The softer the fruit, the heavier the syrup required. Ordi- 
narily about seventy degree. Ballings' saccharomctcr, is al)out the proper weight 
for the syrup. 

The fruit is then placed in earthen pans, and covered with the syrup, where 
it is left to remain al)Out a week. The sugar enters the fruit a;id displaces what 
juice remained after the scalding process. 

The fruit now requires careful watching, as fermentation will soon take place, 
and when this has reached a certain stage, the fruit and syrup are heated to a 
boiling degree, which checks the fermentation. This heating process should be 
repeated as often as necessary for about six weeks. 

The fruit is then taken out of the syrup, and washed in clean water, and it is 
then ready to be either glaced or crystallized, as the operator may wish. If glaced, 
the fruit is dipped in thick sugar syrup and left to harden quickly in the open air. 
If it is to be crystallized, dip in the same kind of syrup, but allow to cool and 
harden slowly, thus causing the sugar which covers the fruit to cry-tallize. The 
fruit is now ready for boxing and shipping. Fruit thus prepared will keep in 
any climate and stand transportation. 

Thus far the crystallized fruit produced in California has sold well. 
There is a considerable importation of French fruit to the United 
States, which may be displaced by the California product, and the busi- 
ness commends itself to those who have ingenuity, patience, and capital 
enough to enable them to experiment and wait for future success. The 
California producer has the advantage of an abundance of very fine 
fruit at a low price, but he carries a handicap in the high cost of trans- 
portation and of labor. 



CALIFORNIA DRIED FRUIT INDUSTRY 

A special census of the fruit-jireserving manufactures of the United 
States in 1905 shows not only that California stands first in the dried 
fruit industry, but that the product (excluding raisins) was in that 
year valued at about fourteen million dollars and was over eighty-eight 
per cent of the whole national product. An adjacent tabulation com- 
piled from the records of the California State Board of Trade gives 
interesting details of this product for a number of years. 

As suggested on page 21 it is the function of the sunshine and dry 
air of California not t)nly to bring vigorous growth to the tree and 
vine, and carry the fruit of both t(^ fullness of size, beauty and quality. 
but to continue its beneficent action until the fruit, which is not required 



448 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

by the trade in fresh ripeness, is given imperishable form, in which its 
beauty, flavors, aromas and nutritive qualities remain available to de- 
light and nourish mankind until the following year's sunshine wins 
from the earth another supply of fresh ripeness. There are many parts 
of the earth where good fruit is grown : there are few where conditions 
producing such fruit continue to accomplish its preservation, as they 
do in California, and this climatic endowment of the State yields an 
annual income of something like twenty millions of dollars, as the years 
run. 

Product of California Cured Fruits in Tons — 1900-1913. 



Year 


Peaches 


Apricots 


Apples 


Pears 


Plums 


Nec- 


Grapes 


Figs 


Prunes 


Raisins 














tarines 








1900 


17,170 


14.000 


3,150 


7,275 


1,950 


435 


240 


2,000 


87.000 


47,16; 


1901 


14.755 


7,776 


3,225 


3,290 


1,725 


Z)7 


180 


3,260 


40,000 


37,125 


1902 


25,210 


18,762 


4,875 


2,625 


1,280 


455 


188 


3,625 


98,500 


54,375 


1903 


16,075 


10.500 


1,800 


2,325 


1,435 


317 


205 


3,000 


82,500 


60,000 


1904 


11,500 


8,500 


1,500 


1,750 


1,150 


210 


170 


2,850 


67,500 


37.500 


1905 


17,500 


19,250 


3,250 


1,750 


930 


185 


193 


3,625 


37,500 


43,750 


1906 


11.250 


3,250 


2,750 


3,500 


1,100 


170 


200 


3,375 


90,000 


47,500 


1907 


12.000 


1,500 


1,500 


500 


750 


137 


188 


3,000 


40.000 


60.000 


1908 


22,500 


19,000 


3,000 


1,200 


1,000 


350 


1,500 


3,000 


25.000 


60,000 


1909 


20,000 


14,500 


2,500 


1,200 


500 


375 


325 


3,500 


77,500 


70,000 


1910 


25.000 


16,000 


3,100 


1,000 


375 


250 


350 


3,775 


45.000 


56,000 


1911 


14.000 


11,000 


3,500 


1,500 


250 


200 


119 


5,500 


95.000 


65.000 


1912 


18.000 


10.000 


2.000 


1,000 


200 


200 


100 


5,000 


102.000 


100,000 


1913 


.■^0,000 


9.000 


2,000 


1,000 


600 


200 


120 


6.000 


45,000 


60.000 



In connection with this notable factor of our horticultural produc- 
tion, certain facts of its utilization and its significance should be clearly 
understood not only by those who actually employ it in their business, 
but by those who clesire to properly appreciate the industrial resources 
of the State. 

First. Cured fruits in California are a primary and not a secondary 
or by-product. It is true, of course, that curing fruit does, to a limited 
extent, save from loss fruit which shippers and canners are not at the 
time paying profitable prices for, and it is true also that the recourse to 
curing frees growers from helpless dependence upon fresh fruit buyers. 
But this does not mean that curing is a way of getting something from 
refuse fruit, not suited for other purposes. It should be taken as evi- 
dence that, for the most part, grades of fruit which are cured are the 
same which are also available for shipping and canning when prices 
are right. It is very important in many ways to have it clearly under- 
stood that, except to an insignificant extent, California fruit drying is 
not undertaken to save wastes or to get something from fruit which is 
not suited to higher uses. 

Second. As our cured fruits are a primary and not a by-product, 
it becomes intelligible why such free investment is made in acres of 
well-made trays; in tramways and turntables for their movement from 
the shelter of convenient cutting or dipping and spreading houses ; in 
capacious apartments and mechanical devises for giving the cut fruit 
its bath in sulphur fumes to preserve natural colors and to prevent 
fermentation and insect invasion ; in the carefully prepared drying 




Plate XXI. — The Loganberry — (See page 417.) 



CURED FRUITS NOT A BY-PRODUCT 449 

floors; in well-fitted packing houses. Such investment has reached 
millions of dollars in the aggregate, and the standing of cured fruits 
as primary products is the justification of such outlay. 

Third. The provision of such equipment is not alone evidence of 
the standing of the industry ; it constitutes an ohligation upon producers 
to put out a product which shall he true to its opportunity as a primary 
product, and not merely a makeshift to prevent loss or waste. Thirty 
years ago California dried fruit was a makeshift, and a disgracefully 
poor one. As enterprise and investment proceeded it was soon seen that 
style and quality alone could requite them. Next it was discerned that 
fruit for curing, to command i)rofitable prices, must be as good as fruit 
for any other high purpose, as has been suggested. It was then be- 
lieved that to secure handsome cured fruit which should only be re- 
lieved of its excess of water and still retain color, flavor and winning 
beauty, could only be produced in machine-evaporators with artificial 
heat, and a few years were given to invention, purchase and rejection 
of all such devices except as occasional refuges when the California 
climate forgets itself. When the demonstration came that with proper 
pre-treatment California sunshine and dry air would produce notably 
fine evaporated fruits without houses and furnaces, cured fruits entered 
upon their career as primary products, and planting to produce them 
began. 

Fourth. The obligations upon producers, to make their output 
worthy of such standing, extended to the whole process of growing 
and curing. The fruit must be well grown, and fruit for curing should 
have size and quality which make it first class for other purposes, with 
the added excellence of being somewhat more mature, because it is not 
required to stand hauling and shipment. It should, however, be care- 
fully handled to escape bruising, because discolorations are blemishes. 
It must be cleanly cut for removal of pit or core, because trimness, neat- 
ness and shajicliness are all essential to beauty. Before it reaches ex- 
posure to the protecting fumes of sulphur, it must be often saved from 
darkening by handling in water, when the nature of the fruit is such 
as to require it. It must be carefully and evenly spread upon the trays, 
especially if it be a cut fruit, so that no interference can prevent each 
piece from reaching its best estate. Sulphuring must be adequate, and 
yet not excessive, for sulphuring is a protecting and not a resurrecting 
process ; it is not to improve bad fruit, but to keep good fruit from be- 
coming bad. The fruit must be sufficiently dried and yet not over-dried, 
and during the process must be protected from dust by the situation 
and character of the ground used, even if such protection costs trouble 
and outlay. 

.-\lthough the sun drying of fruit may be a simple process, so many 
little arts, methods and api)lianccs are continually being introduced to 
facilitate work or improve the product, that one can learn much by 
visiting the different fruit regions during the drying season. Such a 
course is commended to growers who contemplate large drying opera- 
tions, for suggestions af great economic importance can be secured. 
The notes of practice which can be given in this connection must be 
brief and general. 



450 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Trays for Drying. — The greater part of the fruit, including 
raisins, is placed upon trays for exposure to the sun. There is great 
variation in the size of the trays. The common small tray is made of 
one-half inch sugar-pine lumber two feet wide and three feet long, the 
boards forming it being held together by nailing to a cleat on each 
end, one by one and a quarter inches, and a lath or narrow piece of 
half-inch stuff is nailed over the ends of the boards, thus stiffening 
the tray and aiding to prevent warping. A cross-section of such a tray 
is shown at A. 

A large tray which is used by some growers is four feet square, 
and is made of slats three-eighths of an inch thick, and one and a half 
inches wide, the slats being nailed to three cross slats three-eighths of 
an inch thick and three inches wide, and the ends nailed to a narrow 
strip one-half inch thick by three-quarters of an inch wide on the 
other side. A cross-section of this tray is shown at B. 



Q S3 



Cross-sections of drying trays. 

Since large drying yards have been supplied with tramways and 
trucks for moving the fruit instead of hand carriage, larger trays, three 
feet by six or three feet by eight, have been largely employed. These 
tramways lead from the cutting sheds to the sulphur boxes and thence 
to various parts of the large drying grounds, making it possible to 
handle large amounts of fruit at a minimum cost. 

Protecting Fruit from Dew. — In the interior there are seldom 
any deposit of dew in the drying season, but occasionally there are 
early rains before the drying season is over. The fruit is then pro- 
tected by piling the trays one upon another, in which operation the thick 
cleats serve a good purpose. In dewy regions the trays are piled at 
night, or cloth or paper is sometimes stretched over the fruit, thus re- 
ducing the discoloration resulting from deposits of moisture upon it. 

Drying Floors. — For the most part the trays are laid directly on 
the ground, but sometimes a staging of posts and rails is built to support 
them, about twenty inches from the ground. The drying trays are 
sometimes distributed through the orchard or vineyard, thus drying 
the fruit with as little carrying as possible. Others clear off a large 
space outside the plantation and spread the trays where full sunshine 
can be obtained. Drying spaces should be selected at a distance from 
traveled roads, to prevent the deposit of dust on the fruit. 

Spaces used for drying are often idle the rest of the year and are 
weed-covered and unsightly during the rainy season, or are cultivated 
for grain-hay which loosens the surface and deepens the dust. When 
one has water for irrigation it is often practicable to reduce dust and 



SULPHURING AND DRYING 451 

secure an amount of desirable feed or hay by putting the piece down 
in alfalfa. Mr. P. T. Gannon of Yolo County proceeded in this way. 
He lowered the tramway tracks to the ground level, and turned up a 
furrow on the sides to hold the water from flooding the adjacent 
ground. In the fall, after the fruit-drying was over, he flooded the 
space, which is a little over half an acre (125 by 225 feet). Then it 
was disked both ways and leveled and harrowed and planted to alfalfa 
before the rains. The land was moist at the time and the seed came 
up and the plants grew more or less through the winter. In April he 
cut the first crop. Just before the space is needed for a drying yard, 
make another cutting, about June 20th, cutting it down close and raking 
it clean. The yard is then ready for the trays and fruit. When the 
drying season is over the yard is cleared, and the space then is as clean 
as a clay floor, from being used so jnuch. In three weeks the top of the 
ground is green all over, and before the rains come there is another 
cutting crop, making three crops a year, a ton at each cutting. So 
something is made from the space and the dust problem is solved, which 
means clean fruit and better prices. 

Grading. — It is of great advantage in drying to have all the fruit 
on a tray of approximately the same size, and grading before cutting 
is advisable. Machines are now made which accomplish this very 
cheajjly and quickly.* 

Cutting-Sheds. — Shelter of some kind is always provided for the 
fruit-cutters. Sometimes it is only a temporary bower made of poles 
and beams upon which tree branches are spread as a thatch ; sometimes 
open-side sheds with boarded roof, and sometimes a finished fruit-house 
is built, two stories high, the lower story opening with large doors on 
the north side, and with a large loft above, where the dried fruit can 
be sweated, packed, and stored for sale. The climate is such that 
almost any shelter which suits the taste of the purse of the producer 
will answer the purpose. 

Sulphuring. — The regulations promulgated under the pure food 
law enacted by Congress in 1906 established an arbitrary limit to the 
percentage of sulphur compounds in evaporated fruits, which was 
shown by producers to be destructive to their industry, and otherwise 
unwarranted and ureasonable. As a result of their protest the enforce- 
ment of such regulations was indefinitely postponed, pending the results 
of scientific investigation which began in 1898. 

From the point of view of the California producer it must be held 
that before the employment of the sulphur process, California cured 
fruits were suitable only to the lowest culinary uses. They were of 
undesirable color, devoid of natural flavor, offensive by content of insect 
life. They had no value which would induce production and discern- 
ible future. Placing the trays of freshly cut fruit in boxes or small 
"houses," with the fumes of burning sulphur, made it possible to pre- 
.serve its natural color and flavor during the evaporation of its surplus 
moisture in the clear sunshine and dry air of the California summer. 
It also prevented souring, which with some fruits is otherwise not pre- 

•Sec under plums and prunes," page 456. 



452 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

veritable in such open air drying, and it protected the fruit from insect 
attack during- the drying process. By the use of sulphur and by no 
other agency has it been possible to lift the production of cured fruits 
of certain kinds from a low-value haphazard by-product to a primary 
product for which Californians have planted orchards, constructed 
packing houses and made a name in the world's markets. 

The action of sulphuring is not alone to protect the fruit, it facili- 
tates evaporation so that about one-half less time is required therefor. 
Not the least important bearing of this fact is the feasibility of cur- 
ing fruits in larger pieces. The grand half-peaches, half-apricots, half- 
pears of the California cured fruits are the direct result of the sulphur 
process. Without it the fruit must be cut into small sections or ribbons, 
which in cooking break down into an uninviting mass, while, with the 
sulphuring, it is ordinary practice to produce the splendid halves with 
their natural color so preserved that they lie in cut glass dishes in 
suggestive semblance to the finest product of the canners, and are 
secured at a fraction of the cost. 

There are various contrivances for the application of sulphur fumes 
to the freshly-cut fruit. Some are small for hand carriage of trays ; 
some are large and the trays are wheeled into them upon trucks. The 
most common is a bottomless cabinet about five or six feet high, of a 
width equal to the length of the tray and a depth a little more than the 
width of the tray. The cabinet has a door the whole width of one side, 
and on the sides within cleats are nailed so that the trays of fruit slip 
in like drawers into a bureau. Some push in the trays so that the bottom 
one leaves a little space at the back, the next a little space at the front, 
and so on, that the fumes may be forced by the draft to pass between 
the trays back and forward. The essentials seem to be open holes or 
dampers in the bottom and top of the cabinet so that the fumes from the 
sulphur burning at the bottom may be thoroughly distributed through 
the interior, and then all openings are tightly closed. To secure a tight 
chamber the door has its edge felted and the cabinet is made of matched 
lumber. The sulphur is usually put on a shovel or iron pot, and it is 
ignited by a hot coal, or a hot iron, or it is thrown on paper of which 
the edges are set on fire, or a little alcohol is put on the sulphur and 
lighted, etc. The sulphur is usually burned in a pit in the ground under 
the cabinet. The application of sulphur must be watchfully and care- 
fully made, and the exposure of the fruit should only be long enough 
to accomplish the end desired. The exposure required differs from 
different fruits, and with the same fruits in different conditions, and 
must be learned by experience. 

Grading and Cleaning. — After the fruit is sufficiently dried (and 
it is impossible to describe how this point may be recognized except by 
the experienced touch), it is gathered from the trays into large boxes 
and taken to the fruit house. Some growers put it into a revolving 
drum of punctured sheet iron, which rubs the pieces together and 
separates it from dust, etc., which falls out through the apertures as the 
drum revolves. Others empty the fruit upon a large wire-cloth table 
and pick it over, grading it according to size and color, and at the same 
time the dust and small particles of foreign matter fall through the wire 



HANDLING CURED FRUITS 453 

cloth. Tlie fanniii}^ mill for cleaning grain may also be used for rapid 
separation of dirt, leaves, etc., with proper arrangement of metal 
screens. 

Sweating. — .Ml fruit, if stored in mass after drying, becomes 
moist. This action should take place before packing. To facilitate it, 
the fruit is put in piles on the floor of the fruit-house and turned occa- 
sionally with a scoop shovel; or, if allowed to sweat in boxes, the fruit 
is occasionally poured from one box to another. The sweating equal- 
izes the moisture throughout the mass. Some large producers have 
sweat-rooms with tight walls, which preserve an even temperature. 
No fruit should be packed before "going through the sweat." If this 
is not done, discoloration and injury will result. 

Dipping Before Packing. — All fruits except prunes can be packed 
in good condition without dipping, provided the fruit is not over-dried. 
Efforts should be made to take up the fruit when it is just sufficiently 
cured to prevent subsequent fermentation. If taken from the trays in 
the heat of the day and covered so that the fruit moth can not reach 
it there is little danger of worms. The highest grades of fruit are made 
in this way. If, however, the fruit has been over-dried or neglected, 
it can be dipped in boiling water to kill eggs of vermin and to make the 
fruit a little more pliable for the press. The dipping should be done 
quickly, and the fruit allowed to drain and then lie in a dark room, 
carefully covered, for twenty-four hours before packing. 

Packing. — To open well, packages of dried fruit should be 
"faced." The many fine arts of paper lining, etc., must be learned by 
observation. Flatten some fair specimens of the fruit to be packed 
(and reference is especially made to such fruits as apricots, peaches 
and nectarines) by running them through a clothes wringer or similar 
pair of rollers set to flatten but not crush the fruit. Do not face witli 
better fruit than the package is to contain. It is a fraud which will 
not in the end be profitable. Lay the flattened fruit (cup side down) 
neatly in the bottom of the box. Fill the box until it reaches the 
amount the box is to contain, and then apply the press until the bottom 
can be nailed on. Invert the box and put on the label or brand ; the 
bottom then becomes the top. 

Many different kinds of boxes are used. A very good size is made 
of seasoned pine, six inches deep by nine inches wide by fifteen inches 
long, inside measurements, and it will hold twenty-five pounds of fruit. 



METHODS WITH DIFFERENT FRUITS 

As already intimated, it will be impossible to enter minutely into 
the operations of drying and packing on a commercial scale, or even 
to notice all the small and ingenious arts by which the work is facil- 
itated. Any one who contemplates production on a large scale should 
personally visit leading regions and inform himself by inquiry and 
observation. Such an education will save mistakes, which may cost 
many times more than the expense of getting it. California producers 



454 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

are usually quite willing to show visitors the methods they employ. 
Though this is the better way of proceeding, a few general hints will 
be given of methods with different fruits. 

Apples. — There seems little use of drying apples unless a very 
light-colored, handsome product can be turned out. This can be done 
by sulphuring as soon as cut, and sun drying in a dry region, or by the 
use of a machine evaporator in regions of greater atmospheric humidity. 
Recently the product has largey increased in such large producing 
regions as the Pajaro Valley, and new labor saving devices are being 
continually introduced. 

Apricots. — Apricots for drying should be fully ripe but not soft 
enough to be mushy. By the use of sulphur and sun heat, an amber- 
colored, semi-translucent fruit is obtained. The prevailing method of 
gathering is to shake down the fruit upon sheets, but the best product 
is hand picked. Pit the fruit by a clean cut completely around in the 
suture ; do not cut part way around and then tear apart — a cle^n-cut 
edge is essential. Put on the trays with the skin down, or with the 
cut up, as it is sometimes described ; sulphur, and then put in the sun. 
About three days of interior valley sunshine will finish the apricots. 
Apricots will yield on the average about one pound of dried fruit to 
five pounds of fresh. 

Mr. Joseph T. Brooks, of San Jose, describes sulphuring of apricots 
as follows: 

The fruit is cut in half and pitted, then spread upon the trays and put into 
an airtight sulphur house. These are made just large enough so that the trays 
may be slid in one over the other so that the sulphur fumes can permeate every 
part of the house. About one pound of powdered sulphur is poured into a hole 
in the ground and set fire, and as long as there is any oxygen left in the house, 
this sulphur will continue to burn and pour forth its volume of dense smoke. 
This process gives the apricots a very pretty golden appearance. The apricots, 
if dried without being sulphured, have a dark uninviting appearance, and are 
inclined to get wormy, although by dipping them in a strong solution of salt 
and hot water the possibility of infection might be overcome. Dried apricots are 
treated to a steam bath to make them pliable, and packed in boxes similar to 
prunes. 

Berries and Cherries. — These fruits are only dried in the sun 
in small quantities for local sale, and ordinary farm-house methods are 
employed. 

Figs*. — The fruit may be carefully picked from the tree so as to 
secure the whole of the stem, when the fruit is fully ripe, as is known 
by the seaming or slight shriveling of the skin. In drying the common 
black fig from large trees, however, the fruit is generally gathered from 
the ground, which is cleaned and smoothed before the crop ripens. In 
drying black figs the fruit is placed on trays and in most cases exposed 
to the sun, but some foothill growers maintain the advantage of drying 
in the shade. This is also practiced by some growers in the Fresno 
district, who stack the trays as soon as filled and thus cure by the natural 
movement of dry air instead of direct sunshine. The figs should not be 
allowed to dry hard. When sufficiently cured, put in sweat-boxes for 

*A special illustrated account of handling dried figs in California is given in "The 
Smyrna Fig at Home and Abroad," by George C. Roeding, Fresno, Cal. 



METHODS or DRYING FRUITS 455 

several clays, and when ready to pack dip in boiling salt water, or, as 
is the practice of some producers, dip in a thin syrup, boiling hot. In 
either method a good pliable condition and handsome color are ob- 
tained. In drying white figs many sulphur the fruit from fifteen 
minutes to an hour before putting out on the trays. Figs which dry 
slowly have to be turned several times during the drying, and those 
which are apt to run juice are placed so that the eye is raised a little 
until the juice is thickened. The white figs are also put in sw'cat-boxes 
and dipi^ed in hot salt water before packing. In packing, the figs are 
often flattened and drawn out by the hand. Such manipulation gives the 
fig a lighter and more translucent appearance. The time required in 
drying figs is usually from five to eight or ten days, according to loca- 
tion and weather. The fruit does not cure evenly, and those which are 
finished (as determined by sight and touch — to be learned by experi- 
ence ) are picked from the trays, and others given more time. 

Mr. ilenry i\Iarkarian, of Fresno, a large producer of dried figs, 
handles the fruit this way : 

He has a cement tank, half filled with salt water and immerses by means of 
a wire basket a ton of figs at a time for from ten minutes to a half hour. The 
figs are hoisted and emptied through a feeder into trays, which are stacked in 
the drying yard till the fruit is of uniform quality. This takes about ten days, 
and is far superior and cheaper to the quicker sun drying. They are then poured 
into sweat-boxes like raisins and taken to the packer, culls being removed. The 
Adriatics are not dipped, but sulphured. 

Culls arc mostly splits. There are more some years than others ; cool, damp 
weather being especially bad. Irregular weather, or very hot weather, will also 
develop culls, and rains will sour a good many, though Adriatics suffer worse 
than the others. In good years culls amount to only about two per cent. In bad 
years they will amount to eight and ten per cent. 

Birds will do big damage. One year they destroyed eight tons of fruit. After- 
wards a few boys with guns were kept busy, and one summer killed 4,000 birds, 
and there was hardly a bird picked fruit in the lot as a result. 

The orchard on the best soil, and best attended to will give the finest fruit. 
However, the average Smyrna crop will run about 20 to 25 per cent extra fancy, 
about the same amount fancy, 45 per cent choice and 5 per cent cooking fruit, sold 
to bakers and pastry manufacturers. The choice fruit is split and packed in 
bricks as seen at fruit stands and grocers. The larger, finer figs can be sold 
whole, packed solid. 

Pears. — The dried pear product is increasing, and, as with 
apples, only a light-colored product is profitable. These are made by 
sulphuring and sun drying, or by the use of the machine drier. For 
sun drying the fruit of medium size is halved, the large fruit being 
quartered. 

Peaches. — Peaches are sun dried in much the same way as apri- 
cots, already described. Take the fruit when it is fully ripe, but not 
mushy; cut cleanly all around to extract the pit and put on trays cup 
side up ; get into the sulphur box as soon as possible after cutting. 
Peaches are dried both peeled and impeded, but drying without peeling 
is chiefly done. Pcling is done with the small paring machines or with 
a knife. Peeling with lye has been generally abandoned because of 
discoloration of the fruit after packing, although it can be successfullv 
done by freqtiently changing the lye and using ample quantities of 
fresh water for rinsing after dipping. 



456 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

Clingstone peaches are successfully handled with curved knives and 
spoon-shaped pitters in conjunction ^vith ordinary fruit knives. Differ- 
ent styles are carried at the general stores in the fruit districts, and 
individuals differ widely in their preferences. 

The weight of dried peaches which can be obtained from a certain 
weight of fresh fruit, depends upon the variety ; some varieties yield 
at least a third more than others, and clings yield more than freestones 
as a rule. Dry-fleshed peaches, like the Muir, yield one pound dry from 
four or five pounds fresh, while other more juicy fruits may require 
six or seven pounds. 

Nectarines. — Nectarines are handled like peaches ; the produc- 
tion of translucent amber fruit in the sun depends upon the skillful use 
of sulphur. 

Plums and Prunes. — Our pitted plums, which are an acid fruit, 
are meeting with more favor than formerly, and the product is increa'^- 
ing. Pitting is done by hand or by the use of foot-power "pitters." 
More rapid and capacious machines are being brought out by inventors. 

Prunes are one of our greatest and most promising products. 
Several varieties which dry sweet with the pit in are used in making 
prunes, as already stated in Chapter XXIII, but the prevailing variety 
is the Prune D'Agen. 

Prunes are gathered by shaking from the trees, usually upon 
sheets spread beneath. Several gatherings are made by light shakings 
which cause only the ripe specimens to fall. Some growers, however, 
hand-pick the fruit — going over the trees several times only shak- 
ing for the final gathering. A superior cured prune is secured by this 
extra effort to secure full and even ripening, but the cost is greater. 

Prunes are usually graded before drying, and various homemade 
contrivances are employed. Some use inclined planes of adjustable 
slats, the grader being thus available for other fruits than prunes ; the 
large fruit rolls along into receptacles at the bottom, while the small 
fruit falls through into other receptacles. Other grading devices are 
made with wire screens or riddles of different sizes of mesh. Some of 
them work on the principle of a fanning mill, three to four riddles, 
placed above one another, each with a slight incline and a spot on the 
side where each grade drops into a box. Some have a long riddle, say 
twelve feet long, with three different sizes of wire screen on it. This 
riddle is hung upon four ropes with an incline ; the prunes are thrown 
in the higher end, and by shaking it they roll down and fall through 
the holes into boxes underneath. The first piece of screen should be 
small, to let only stems and dirt through, and no prunes. This long 
hanging screen is also used to grade prunes after drying. There are 
now several excellent manufactured fruit graders on sale in this State. 
Their work is very satisfactory, and they have largely displaced home- 
made contrivances. 

The next step in the process is dipping in lye to thin and crack 
the skin, which facilitates the escape of moisture in the drying process. 
In the large caldron lye is made with one pound of concentrated lye 
to each thirty gallons of water, and kept boiling hot. The fruit is put 
into wire baskets or galvanized pails with perforated sides and bottoms, 




IN- f 






..,4« 



^' 




vii 






;%- i>m i 



k^' 



^^^ 




Plate XXII.— Strawberry patch with cane windbreak (see page 421); also 
almond trees in bloom (page 425). 



i 



METHODS OF DRYING PRUNES 457 

and clipped in the boilinj^ lye for about a minute, or until the skin has 
a wrinkled appearance, then the basket is plunged into clean cold water 
to rinse off the lye. This rinsing water must be frecjuently changed, 
for it soon becomes very alkaline. Some begin with a stronger lye 
solution, one pound to ten gallons of water, claiming that a very short 
dip in stronger lye is better than long exposure in a weaker solution. 
After this dipping, the prunes are placed on trays. In the sun the 
prune dries sufficiently in from one to two weeks, according to the 
situation and weather. 

A process of puncturing the skin of the prunes by causing them 
to roll over needle points has also been employed to some extent. 
There are now manufactured very capacious appliances for continuous 
dipping, rinsing, puncturing and spreading on the trays so that the fruit 
is handled in large quantities at a minimum cost. In no branch of our 
fruit industry, perhaps, has there been greater advance in labor-saving 
devices than in prune handling. 

When sufficiently dried the prunes are put through the "sweat," 
which takes from several days to two or three weeks, and then are 
ready for grading, finishing, and packing. In grading, the prunes are 
separated by the use of a grader, as already described, into a number 
of grades, the largest, forty prunes to the pound, and so on, fifty, sixty, 
etc., to the smallest, which may run one hundred or more to the pound. 
Finishing consists in exposing to steam, in dipping in clear hot water, 
or hot sugar syrup, or in dipping in boiled juice of ripe prunes, or 
peaches or apples, etc. Although there is a great variety of materials 
used for "glossing" prunes by different producers, the prevailing prac- 
tice is to rely upon hot water, to which pureJ glycerine is added at the 
rate of one pound to twenty gallons. Some growers also add a little 
brine (having first dissolved the salt and skinned off the impurities). 
This final hot dip kills insect eggs, and the fruit, after drying off away 
from the access of insects, should be packed tightly in boxes, usually 
holding twenty-five pounds, though thirty-eight to fifty-pound boxes 
are used in foreign trade. 

The following explicit hints on the curing of prunes are based 
upon wide experience and observation in the Santa Clara \'alley : 

Be sure to allow the prunes to obtain all of the sugar they can from the 
trees by hanging until they drop of their own accord. Do not pick up until 
prunes are soft to the touch. These two rules are productive of nice black 
prunes. They may not be black when gathered in the bins but will color with 
age, without any foreign coloring matter. 

Do not keep prunes in boxes over night. They go through a sweat, and do 
not make a first quality of dried fruit, and take much longer to dry. It is better 
to let the prunes lie on the ground under the tree for several days than to let the 
picked prunes lie in the boxes over one night. 

The flipping Ihiid must be kept at the l)oiling point and no prunes put in unless 
it is boiling. It is not a matter of how strong the lye is, but how hot is the 
water. On the trays prunes will either dry or ferment. Unless the dip is hot 
enough the prune will not immediately commence to dry, but will, in a few days, 
become a chocolate color and refuse to dry, sometimes a few on a tray, often 
half and sometimes nearly all. If the water is at the boiling point all through 
the dip, two pounds of lye to the 100 gallons of water, may be sufficient. If the 
water is not boiling, ten pounds of lye to the 100 gallons of water may be re- 
quired. 



458 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Weather conditions govern the time prunes should remain on the trays. Grasp 
a handful of prunes and give them a gentle squeeze and open the hand quickly, 
if the prunes separate they are ready to stack the trays and the fruit should be 
placed in the bin before it rattles on the trays. 

When the prunes are sufficiently dry put them in a dry place where it will 
not rain on them, but do not prevent the air from getting to them. Let the wind 
have free access until the rains set in then close doors and make the house as 
snug as you can. In making bins, be sure the boards are dry and the bins well 
above ground, or you will have trouble. Do not let prunes get damaged by rain. 

For dipping before packing, some use a brine dip — about five pounds of salt 
to 100 gallons of water is about right. This salt dip can be used more safely for 
prunes than for peaches or other pitted fruit, as in some instances it has attracted 
moisture and caused mold. As to the respective results of a sal solution and 
glycerine solution, the salt seems to be a cleansing process, which leaves the skin 
of the fruit in a bright, clear condition and brings out the blue bloom, which is 
desirable. The glycerine is more of a syrupy or glossy nature, and on prunes 
that are inclined to be reddish this solution can be used to advantage. A com- 
mon method of treating prunes is to use the small prunes and suspend them in 
the steam-heated tank of the Anderson dipper, where they can not come in con- 
tact with the steam (which causes the skin and meat of the prune to turn dark), 
dissolve out the juice, thus forming a dip liquor, and this is quite extensively 
used. 

Raisins. — The varieties of grapes used for raisins are described 
in Chapter XXVIII. The production of raisins has reached such an 
extent, and employs so much skill and capital, that the processes 
employed to facilitate the curing and packing are so various that a 
description of them cannot be attempted. Besides an excellent special 
treatise has been written on this subject.* However, in beginning the 
commercial production of raisins, one should visit the raisin farms and 
packing-houses during the harvest. The following description by T. C. 
White, of Fresno, gives an outline of practice in the vineyard : 

In Fresno picking commences about the first of September, although there 
have been seasons when it occurred as early as the 20th of August. The grapes 
under no circumstances should be picked for raisins until they are ripe. There 
are three ways by which to ascertain this: First, by the color, which should be a 
light amber ; second, by the taste ; and third, by the saccharometer. which is by far 
the most accurate. A grape may be ripe, and not have the proper color, when 
grown entirely in the shade. The juice of the grape should contain at least 
twenty-five per cent saccharine, to produce a good raisin. 

The method of drying is with trays placed upon the ground. The almost 
entire absence of dew in our locality greatly facilitates this method. The trays 
are usually twenty-four by twenty-six inches, which hold about twenty pounds 
of fruit, and should produce from six to seven pounds of raisins. The product 
of a vineyard depends largely upon its age and favorable conditions, varying 
from two to nine tons of grapes per acre. 

The trays are distributed along the sides of the roads, from which they are 
taken by the pickers as they are needed. As the grapes are picked from the 
vines, all imperfect berries, sticks, and dead leaves are removed from the bunches, 
which are then placed upon the trays, right side up. A cluster has what is called 
a right and a wrong side, the wrong side having more of the stems exposed 
than the right side. Great care should be used in picking, so as to handle the 
bunches only by the stem. If the berries come in contact with the hands, some 
of the bloom will be removed, which will injure the appearance of the raisins. 
The trays are placed, after filling, between the vines, one end being elevated so 
that the grapes may receive the more direct rays of the sun. 

Too rapid drying is not desirable. The grapes are left upon the trays until 
about two-thirds dry, which, with us, will be from six to eight days. They are 
then turned. This is accomplished by placing an empty tray on top of the one 

*The Raisin Industry by Gustav Eisen, San Francisco. 



METHOD OF CURING RAISINS 459 

filled with partially-dried raisins, and turning them both over. Then take off 
the upper or original tray, and you have the raisins turned without handling or 
damage. After turning, curing will proceed more rapidly, and frequently is com- 
pleted in four or five clays. During this time they should be carefully watched 
to prevent any from becoming too dry. When it is found they are dry enough, 
the trays are gathered and stacked one upon another as high as convenient for 
the sorting which follows. This protects them from the sun and prevents over- 
drying. Stacking should be attended fo early in the morning, while the stems 
and berries are slightly moist and cool from the night air, as they will retain 
this moisture after being transferred to the sweat-boxes, and assist in quickening 
the sweating process. 

As the raisins are taken oflF the trays, some of the berries on the bunch will 
be dry enough and a few will not be sufficiently cured. To remove the moist 
ones would destroy the appearance of the cluster, and to leave them out longer 
would shrivel the dry ones, hence the swcat-bo.x. The moisture is diffused 
through the box, some being absorbed by the dry raisins, and the stems also 
taking their share are thus rendered tough and pliable and easily manipulated 
when ready for packing. 

Sorting and grading require great care and judgment, and although a tedious 
process, it greatly facilitates rapid packing. The sweat-box is a little larger than 
the tray and about eight inches deep, and contains about one hundred and 
twenty-five pounds of raisins. Heavy manila paper is used in the sweat-boxes, 
one sheet being placed in the bottom, and three or four more at equal distance 
as the filling progresses. The object of the paper is to prevent the tangling of 
the stems and consequent breaking of the bunches when removed for packing. 

The sorters have three sweat-boxes, one for the lirst, second and third quali- 
ties, as the grade will justify. The bunches should be handled by the stem and 
placed carefully in the sweat-boxes to avoid breaking the stems; thereby de- 
stroying the symmetry of the clusters. Any found to be too damp are returned 
to the trays and left a day or two longer in the sun. To ascertain if the fruit 
is perfectly cured, take a raisin between the thumb and forefinger and roll it 
gently until softened, when either jelly or water will exude from the stem end — 
if water, it requires further drying. When the boxes are filled, they are taken to 
the equalizer. This should be built of brick or adobe, and as near air-tight as 
possible, but provided with windows to allow ventilation when necessary. The 
windows should have shutters to keep it dark. The filled boxes arc placed one 
exactly above another to a convenient height, and should remain from ten to 
twenty days or more, when they will have passed through the sweating process. 
When the raisins are sufficiently equalized, the sweat-boxes are removed to the 
packing-room, which is provided with tables, presses, scales, etc. 

The foregoing' relates to the preparation of the standard clusters. 
Loose raisins are now being produced in increasing quantities. Loose 
Muscatels are prepared by being put through the stenimer and grader. 
The stemnier removes the berries from the stems, and the grader, by 
separating according to size, determines the grade. During the last 
few years the seeding of raisins has increased rapidly, and large estab- 
lishments for this work, with every ingenious machinery, have been 
erected. Seeded raisins constitute a considerable portion of the 
product. 

A considerable quantity of dipped raisins are also made of the 
Sultana and Thompson seedless grapes and of loose or inferior Mus- 
catels. A lye dip of about one pound of potash to twelve gallons of 
water is used, and the solution is kept boiling hot. The ripe fruit is 
dipped for an instant, then plunged in fresh water for a thorough 
rinsing, and then placed on the trays. During warm, dry weather in 
the interior, the raisin.s' are dried in the shade by leaving the trays in 
piles, but if cooler, moister weather prevails, the trays must be spread 
out. The product is a handsome amber color. 



460 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

An oil dip has been profitably used with Thompson's Seedless : 
One quart of olive oil ; ^4 pound Greenbank soda and 3 quarts 
water are made into an emulsion, and then reduced with 10 gallons 
water in the dipping tank, adding more soda to get lye-strength enough 
to cut the skins, and more soda has to be added from time to time to 
keep up the strength. The grapes are dipped in this solution and 
sulphured to the proper color. 

Mr. Hecke's Way With Dipped Raisins. — Much experimenta- 
tion has been undertaken by California growers to improve the process 
of making dipped raisins. The following is the method devised and 
largely used by Mr. G. H. Hecke of Woodland, Yolo County, in 
handling Thompson and Sultana raisins : 

Before drying they are dipped in a solution of sodium bicarbonate, which just 
takes the bloom off, but does not cut the skin. This reduces the time of drying 
about half, so what it costs in one way it saves in part in another. A crew of 
seven men can keep two vats going and turn out 1,600 trays a day, 500 trays per 
ton of raisins. 

The stock solution of bicarbonate is a pound to a gallon of water. It is diluted 
about 3 to 1, the proportion varying with the effect on the grapes, more of the 
stock solution being added as desired. The grapes are dipped in wire trays in 
this warm solution and about four wire trays are needed to a vat. A thin layer 
of olive oil is kept on the surface of the solution, a trace of which touches the 
surface of the grapes as they come out and gives them the right color and 
quality. Only a tablespoonful of oil is added at a time and the actual amount of 
oil used is very small — about one gallon to 500 trays. 

This method of bleaching is held to be vastly superior to sulphur drying. It 
gives as fine a looking raisin as the sulphured, the raisin has a natural flavor 
that is very attractive, and is better in other ways. The raisins are sun dried in 
eight to ten days, the trays being stacked if rain threatens, artificial drying not 
being necessary. The total cost of making raisins is about $25 per ton, including 
harvesting. 

GRAPE SYRUP 

The manufacture of grape syrup, which was formerly of consider- 
able prominence as a means of disposing of wine grapes, has recently 
received less attention because of low prices in competition with the 
vast amount of syrup available from the sugar refineries. 



MACHINE EVAPORATION 

Although California summer conditions of adequate heat and dry 
air favor open-air evaporation to such an extent that nearly all our 
product of cured fruit is secured in that way, there are some parts of 
the State where artificial heat would be a safer recourse and there are 
late fruits which sometimes collide with early rains in a way to cause 
losses even in our best sun-curing regions. 

It is interesting, therefore, to describe a machine evaporator con- 
structed upon true principles and having capacity sufficiently large 
to encourage its use. Mr. L. W. Parsons of Campbell, Santa Clara 
county, has given most of his life to the design and construction of 
fruit evaporators, and secured patents thereupon which have expired 
and are now public property. In the Pacific Rural Press of June 19 



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462 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

and 26, 1909, he gave his conchisions on the desirabihty of machine 
evaporation and a design for the construction of an evaporator which 
embodied all his best work in this line. The accompanying drawings 
and description are from Mr. Parson's writings : 

A fruit drying chamber capable of holding about two tons is about as large 
as one heater can well handle. Wire trays two feet wide by five feet long are 
as large as one strong man can conveniently handle ; he might prefer them 
shorter ; in fact, if the smaller tray would give a drier of sufficient capacity to 
to meet the demands of the owner, he could make the trays two by four feet, 
with a narrower furnace, to correspond. Where two men are always available, 
trays three by six feet have been found to work well. 

A drier five feet wide and twenty-four feet long, having ten trays in its length 
and twelve trays high, holds 120 trays 2 by 5 feet, or a total drying surface of 
1,200 square feet, which at the rate of 3 pounds per foot give a total of 3,600 
pounds at one time : that is, it would take that much gross weight of fruit before 
cutting to fill the trays. Large fruit would amount to more, and. small fruit or 
culls might not go above two pounds to the foot. 

By making the drier one or two trays longer and higher, and a foot or so 
wider, the capacity may be materially increased. But if much more capacity is 
desired, it would be better to build another drier, or several of them, alongside of 
it, which would work satisfactorily. 

The fruit drying chamber rests on top of the hot air chamber, which is 
surrounded by brick or cement walls about eight inches thick, and is as long and 
wide as the fruit chamber above. The height of these walls depends on the size 
and shape of the heater enclosed by them. The furnace is a very important 
factor: it must be strong, not easily burned out, smoke-tight in all its joints and 
flues, with caps or covers so placed to facilitate cleaning out soot and ashes. 
There must be room between the sides of the furnace and the side walls to allow 
for circulation of the air to be heated. 

Fresh air enters this hot air chamber through openings about a foot square 
at the bottom in front between the furnace and the side walls ; passes along on 
the sides and top of furnace and flues until it reaches the back end of the hot 
air chamber, where it passes up through an opening into the fruit chamber above. 

The next, and perhaps the most critical, part in the construction, is the sheet 
iron floor which covers the furnace and flues and separates them from the fruit 
chamber above. This iron floor is made of either black or galvanized iron, not 
thinner than No. 24; thicker would be better. It rests on rods or bars of angle 
or T iron stretched from wall to wall, with ends built into the walls. These 
rods are spaced about two feet apart. The sheets of iron should be riveted or 
bolted together. The edges of this iron floor should project into and be imbedded in 
the brick walls in front and along the two side walls as far back as the floor 
goes to the other end of the drier. Cover this floor with an inch or so of sand 
or fine earth, so as to stop up all cracks. At the back end of drier this iron floor 
is cut short one foot, allowing an opening of one by about five feet to allow the 
hot air from the heater below the iron floor to pass up into the fruit chamber 
above. This floor must be made tight everywhere, so no hot air can possibly 
leak upward and scorch the fruit or the woodwork above. 

The brick walls should be built about eighteen inches above the iron floor, so 
that the wooden frame which rests on top will be safe from burning. 

The furnace may be about four feet high by three feet wide, with an ash 
pit in the bottom part, and six or eight or more feet long. This will handle 
four-foot cordwood conveniently and make a liberal combustion chamber for the 
flames. It may be a cylinder or shaped like a boiler, or have brick walls, with a 
cast iron arch on top. Or it may be a big wrought iron box made of quarter-inch 
boiler iron, braced with angle iron to prevent warping. 

A smoke pipe one foot in diameter connects with the back end of the furnace, 
passes horizontally to near the back end of the drier, then by a short elbow 
doubles back, coming to the front over the top of the furnace, and then, by an 
elbow, to right or left through the side brick wall to connect with the pipe inside 
of the ventilator shaft or flue. 



CONSTRUCTION OF A FRUIT DRIER 463 

If the furnace is four feet high and the pipe above it one foot thick, allow 
six inches space between the top of the furnace and the pipe and between the 
pipe and sheet-iron floor above it; then add the eighteen inches of brick wall 
above the iron floor; we get a total height of seven and a half feet from the 
ground to the top of wall. 

But only the furnace needs to be as deep as this, and it can be placed in a 
pit at one end of the drier. The brick walls back of the furnace do not need to 
go so far down by perhaps two feet. The smoke pipe leaving the furnace close 
to its top can rest on a brick lying on top of the ground, so the part of the heat- 
ing chamber holding the long flues may be shallower, thus saving some expense 
in masonry. The top of the brick wall should be level all the way around and 
even with the floor of the house, so the operator can (.-asily handle the trays 
on the upper track. Do not insert woodwork of any kind into the brickwork. 

Lay 2 x 4-inch sills on top of the brick walls all around the four sides. Cut 
your upright studding of 2 x 4 joists six and a half feet high, spaced two feet 
apart, and nail a 2 x 4 plate on top. This is for the two long sides. The ends 
of the drying chamber are to be supplied with close-fltting doors. Nail surfaced 
matched lumber on the inner face of the studding. These boards had better be 
of redwood, so as not to gum up the trays with pitch. 

These two side walls should be perfectly straight, plumb and level and at 
equal distance apart at all points, so the trays will work true and not bind or 
slip off the tracks. Nail to these walls tracks or slides made of strips one and 
one-half inch square. Fasten to these tracks wheels, known to the hardware 
men as "sash rollers," one inch in diameter and spaced ten inches apart along the 
track. Cut a little notch in the edge of the track, so the wheel can turn freely, 
with the big side of the wheel upward. Put twelve of these tracks on each wall, 
spaced six inches apart, beginning six inches from the ceiling to the top of the 
first track, then si.x inches to the top of the next track, etc. One strong 16-penny 
wire nail driven into each stud will hold these tracks securely. l''asten the wheels 
with screws to the track on a work bench before nailing them to the walls. 

Nail matched lumber on top of the plates from side to side for a ceiling. 
This wooden shell will have to be braced from the outside so it can stand up 
firmly with its load of fruit. 

The ventilator or exhaust flue should be about two by three feet inside and 
extend about twenty feet above the top of the drier. Build it against the side of 
the drier, resting on top of the brick wall, close to the front end of the drier. 

The smoke pipe must be carried by a suitable elbow from its position above 
the furnace through the side brick wall to a point under the center of the venti- 
lator, thence up through it to the top. A sheet-iron weather cap on top should 
protect the ventilator and smoke pipe. Make the bottom of the ventilator where 
smoke pipe enters, air tight to ensure good draft. Provide caps or covers at 
the elbows to facilitate cleaning out the soot. 

On the side of the drying chamber, at the bottom, cut a hole into the venti- 
lator for the passage of the damp air from the fruit into the ventilator. This 
opening should be the shape of a right angled triangle, in such position as though 
the bottom cover of the side wall were being cut off. The bottom and perpen- 
dicular side of opening are to be three feet long. The lower tracks go past this 
opening to carry trays to the door. Some kind of a small guide rail should be 
placed to prevent the corners of the trays from striking against the edge of 
opening. The trays are to be one-half inch shorter than tlie drier is wide inside, 
so as to move freely without danger of being bound. Two or three rods of 
half-inch iron provided with screws and nuts should pass through from side to 
side of drying chamber about half way from top to bottom, to prevent the walls 
of the drier from warping or bulging, or else the trays will drop off the tracks. 

Make four sides of the trays of stuff one and a half inches square, notched 
at the corners of trays. Tack on No. 3 mesh galvanized wire cloth. Over this 
nail strips one inch thick by one and a half inches wide for runners to roll over 
the wheels. Nail a similar strip across the middle of the tray to prevent the wire 
cloth from sagging. From twenty-five to fifty extra trays will be found con- 
venient in operating the drier. The wire cloth is two feet wide. Make the tray 
frames two feet one inch wide. With average prices for labor and material this 
drier can be built in a substantial manner for about $500. 



464 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

To Operate the Drier. — Get started right by taking all day in gradually filling 
the drier, so that by night time the first trays will be within a few hours of being 
finished. Start a good fire before putting in the fruit, so as to burn out the oily 
smells of the new ironwork. Use the eight lower tracks for the fresh fruit. Put 
eight trays in at a time, one tray on each of the eight lower tracks about every 
forty-five minutes, starting them at the front end over the furnace and pushing 
along. After ten lots have been so placed the eight lower tracks will be full. 
Then take out one tray from each track at the back end, and put them in on the 
upper four tracks, two trays on a track, to be gradually pushed along from time 
to time, as often as fresh trays are put in at the front, until the machine is full 
and the driest trays will be at the front end on the upper four tracks. _ The 
fresh, wet fruit will in this way have its vapor drawn out through the ventilator 
close by, without wetting the fruit which is partly dry. 

As the fruit gets drier it is moved into drier and warmer air at the back end. 
But this fresh air right from the heater below is 180 degrees hot and unsafe for 
fruit to finish in, so it is started back on the upper tracks to finish in a milder 
temperature, with enough vapor in the air to allow the fruit to finish gradually 
without danger of scorching, turning out the fruit in a soft and flexible condition, 
evenly cured and right in color. This process is peculiar to this evaporator and 
yields the best results in quality of work done. 

If fruit is rushed too fast through the drier it will get back to the front and 
top too soon and will be too wet to dry readily in the lower temperature. 

If the beginner gets caught this way, it will be better, after waiting a little, 
to take it out, and, if still too wet, carry it back to the other end and put in on 
the upper four tracks again to gradually go forward again. After a little ex- 
perience he will learn how and when to move the fruit. 

As to variations of heat in different parts of the drier and the effects thereof, 
it may be added that the thermometer hanging in the current of air just as it 
strikes the fruit may register 190 degrees and do no harm, for the fruit at that 
end of the drier has enough moisture to save it. The air cools rapidly, and 
when it reaches the other end of the drier where the fruit on the top tracks 
is nearly dry, the temperature will be about 40 degrees cooler. This is one of 
the most valuable points in this evaporator, finishing the fruit in a lower tem- 
perature and yet with but little moisture in the air. 

Wood or coal fires will fluctuate in heat, and a careless operator might allow 
the temperature to get to 200 or 210 degrees, but, if it does not last more than a 
few minutes, and as the fruit is not too near being finished at the exposed end, 
no harm is done. A thermometer resting on the tray at the back end lying 
between the fruit will show about 10 degrees lower temperature than when 
hanging clear in the draft at that point. 

While drying the trays should not touch the ends of the drier, but be pushed 
back about a foot and a half from the doors to allow room for free circulation 
of air at the back end of drier and down at the front end. It takes sixteen to 
twenty-four hours to dry the fruit, according to kind and size. Apples are dried 
in six to eight hours. 

The furnace may be made to use any fuel. An oil burner is the best, because 
the heat can be kept steadily at the maximum. 



PARTNIXK: FRL'IT PROTECTION 



CHAPTER XXXIX 
CALIFORNIA METHODS WITH INJURIOUS INSECTS 

The California climate, which so favors tree and vine by a long, 
mild, growing season also enables some insects to multiply much more 
rapidly than they do in wintry cliines ; some having several distinct 
broods, others carrying on the work of reproduction and destruction of 
plants nearly the year round. The difficulties of the problem of the 
control of injurious insects are constantly being increased because 
new pests, in spite of the znost careful efforts to keep them outside 
our boundaries, occasionally find their way into our orchards and vine- 
yards. Furthermore native species, feeding, unnoticed perhaps, upon 
wild growths have found, in certain instances, that cultivated plants 
offer to them most satisfactory food and then suddenly become a 
factor in the horticulturists' problem. 

Undoubtedly parasitic and predaceous insects preying upon the 
injurious species found in the fruit plantations are of assistance, in 
greater or lesser measure, in reducing the pests, and this service is 
being promoted by the introduction of beneficial insects from other 
parts of the world. There are many of our native species of insects, 
also syrphus and ichneumon flies, ladybirds, etc., that arc valuable in 
this regard. Other factors also, such as untoward weather-conditions 
at the time of hatching, bacterial and fungous diseases of insects, etc., 
assist the horticulturist in his warfare against injurious insects. It is 
also a fact that California conditions have demanded and favored the 
development of ways and means for the suppression of orchard and 
vineyard pests, and methods and appliances have been invented which 
have demonstrated notable efficiency and value. 

While the literature upon the subject of insect pests in California 
is quite extensive, much of it is beyond the reach of the general 
reader. Nevertheless there are a number of publications which should 
be secured and studied by every fruit grower. These are the bulletins 
and reports of the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University 
of California, at Berkeley (from which many of the following state- 
ments are taken) ; of the State Board of Horticulture, at Sacramento; 
and of the Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department 
of Agriculture, at Washington. A most useful addition to the horti- 
culturist's library will be found in Kellogg's "American Insects." pub- 
lished by Henry Holt and Company, New York. This excellent work 
of Professor Vernon Kellogg, of Stanford University, is particularly 
valuable because of its* California observations and point of view. The 
latest and at the same time the most specific and practically valuable 
review of fruit pests and their control is "Injurious and Beneficial 

465 



466 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Insects of California," by E. O. Essig, State Board of Horticulture, 
Sacramento, 1913. Furthermore as the study of the pests and the 
invention of means for their destruction are continually progressing 
one can only keep himself up to date and enable himself to profit by 
improvements, by diligent reading of California's periodicals devoted 
to practical horticulture. 

CLASSES OF INSECTS 

In order to arrange injurious insects in classes in a popular way, 
the grouping here will be based upon the character of the work they 
do. This arrangement has been followed by other writers and is 
perhaps better than attempting to group the insects which prey upon 
any single tree or plant, because injurious insects seldom restrict 
themselves to a single food plant. Therefore the grouping will be as 
follows : 

( 1 ) Insects destroying foliage ; 

(2) Insects upon the bark or upon the surface of leaf and fruit; 

(3) Insects boring into the twig, stem or root; 

(4) Insects boring into the pulp of fruits. 



INSECTS DESTROYING FOLIAGE 

Cut Worms and Army Worms. — These are the larvae of Noc- 
tuid moths, which often become abundant over limited areas and 
do much damage to trees and plants. Cut worms and Army worms 
are terms applied to the same insects in California. In ordinary years 
they are not present in sufficient numbers to cause much concern, and 
in such years they are known simply as cut worms. When all condi- 
tions are favorable, however, certain species develop in enormous 
numbers and having exhausted the food supply where they breed, they 
begin to migrate or march, commonly in a definite direction, as an 
army in search of new food. When they thus appear in such large 
numbers and take on the migrating habit they are called army worms. 

Some of the caterpillars have the habit of climbing up vines and 
trees and eating off the buds in the early spring. These are called 
climbing cut worms. Others remain at or near the surface of the 
ground and feed by cutting off the plants at this point. They are 
more commonly found in the grass lands, but very frequently attack 
cultivated crops, particularly on land that was in grass the previous 
year. 

Of the methods used to protect trees and plants from cut worms, 
poisoned bait is probably the most common. This consists of bran 
and molasses or other sweet substance poisoned with arsenic and 
distributed in handfuls about the plants. The proportions are as 
follows : forty pounds of bran, two gallons of cheap molasses, and 
five pounds of arsenic. Cheap glycerine may be used to prevent the 
mixture from drying. This will be eaten by the worms in preference, 
usually, to the plants which it is desired to protect. 



CUT WORMS AND CANKF.R WORMS 467 

Cut worms and army worms may also be captured by means of 
traps. Because of their habit of feeding at night and remaining con- 
cealed during tlic day, pieces of boards may be placed on the ground 
around the growth to be protected and these may be turned over 
during the day and the worms killed. 

In case of outbreaks of army worms the most important and 
successful means of fighting them is to keep them out of the orchard 
or vineyard entirely. This can be successfully done if they are dis- 
covered in time, or if already in one portion, they can be kept from 
spreading over the rest of the property. They travel in immense 
numbers in a definite direction, coming generally from an adjoining 
or nearby grain field. If a burrow is plowed along the side of the 
place to be protected it will effectively stop their progress. This fur- 
row should be plowed as deep as possible, with the vertical side next to 
the field to be protected. It can be further trimmed with a spade, 
preferably cutting under slightly, making a smooth surface, over 
which few if any, of the worms will make their way. Above this 
shoulder a fine pulverized earth should slope as abruptly upward as 
possible. If any of the worms succeed in climbing up over the 
smooth surface made by the spade they will be pretty sure to fall 
back as they reach this fine loose earth in an attempt to ascend over 
the projecting shoulder. Postholes should be dug on the straight 
edge of the furrow every fifteen or twenty feet. The worms in failing 
to scale the vertical side of the furrow will crawl along in the bottom 
and fall into these holes. Here they may be killed by pouring in a 
httle crude oil, or by pouring in a little distillate and dropping in a 
match, thus burning them, or the holes filled in and others dug. They 
may also be killed in the furrow by sprinkling them with kerosene or 
by pouring a strip of crude oil along the furrow. 

Canker Worms. — These are destructive leaf-feeding caterpillars, 
commonly known also as inchworms, loopers or measuring worms, 
because of the peculiar looping gait by which they move about. The 
male moths are slender bodied and have broad, thin wings, while the 
females are wingless, heavy-bodied creatures. 

While these caterpillars can in large measure be controlled by 
spraying with lead arsenate or Paris green, it is by far the best to 
use the trap method of control and avoid having them upon the 
trees at all. The trap method depends for its success upon the fact 
that the wingless female moth upon emerging from her cocoon in 
the ground immediately crawls up the trunk of the nearby tree and 
places her eggs upon the twigs. By trapping the females on their 
way up into the trees no eggs can be placed near the foliage and the 
caterpillars hatching from them can do no damage. The traps are 
made thus: Take No. 16 or No. 14 wire cloth in strips six inches 
wide, draw and tack the top edge close to the trunk of the tree over a 
bandage of cloth which is put on first to make the joint tight. The 
lower edge should flare out about an inch from the tree all around. 
This trap will need rather frequent cleaning while the moths are active. 

Tent Caterpillars. — Several species of hairy caterpillars called 
"tent caterpillars," or "web worms," from their spinning covers of 



468 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

cobweb-like material, under which they take shelter in large colonies ; 
but one, at least, of the group does not spin a web, though it lives 
in clusters on the tree. The worms can be killed by cutting off and 
burning the twig holding the cluster or by burning the colonies in 
place with a torch on the end of a pole, or by spraying the foliage 
with lead arsenate or Paris green. The pest can be reduced while 
pruning by carefully collecting and burning the egg clusters, which 
encircle the twig. 

Red-Humped Caterpillar. — Striped caterpillars, not hairy, but 
having two rows of black spines along the back, also living in clusters ; 
of reddish color with yellow and white lines ; a short distance back 
of the red head of the caterpillar is a red hump on which are four 
black spines ; black spines are also scattered over the body, but smaller 
than those on the back. Spray with lead arsenate or Paris green, or 
cut off and burn colonies. 

Caterpillar of Tussock Moth. — A conspicuous caterpillar with 
four short, brush-like tufts on its back, and two long, black plumes 
at the front, and one at the rear of the body. This leaf-eater is found 
on apple, pear, plum and sometimes on other fruit trees, also on the 
walnut and oak. The caterpillars are peculiarly resistant to arsenical 
sprays and can not be successfully controlled by these. The larva 
spins a cocoon sometimes in the fold of a leaf, more commonly in 
crotches or rough places on the bark, or even on adjacent buildings 
or fences, and the female, after emerging from the cocoon, deposits 
her eggs upon the outside of it. The insect is fortunately very freely 
parasitized in the egg form and prevented from wide injury. It can 
be controlled by destroying the egg masses during pruning, as they 
are white and very conspicuous. 

Pear and Cherry Slug.— A small, slimy, dark-colored worm, with 
the fore part of the body notably larger than the rear part, eating 
the upper surface of the leaves but not usually making holes through 
them. The insect can be checked by throwing fine road dust or air- 
slacked lime over the tree, which cakes vipon the slime of the worm 
and destroys it. On a large scale an arsenate of lead or Paris green 
spray is best. 

Saw-Fly Worm. — There are several larvae of saw-flies which 
do much injury to pear trees, currants, etc., by eating the whole leaf 
substance except the larger ribs. The worms are small, not slimy like 
the pear slug, the one infesting the pear being about half an inch 
when fully grown. Its general appearance and work are shown by 
the engravings. The most available remedy is an arsenate of lead 
or Paris green spray. 

Large Caterpillars on Grape-vines. — The grape-vine is often 
seriously injured by the attacks of very large leaf-eating worms two 
inches and upwards in length, sometimes with a large horn, or spine, 
sometimes without. They are larvae of several species of Sphinx 
moths or hawk-moths. The worms when new hatched can be killed 
by an arsenical spray or by hand-picking. The numbers of worms 
can be reduced by killing the large moths which are abundant at 



J 



Tin-: APHIS OR LEAF LOUSE 



469 



nightfall on beds of verbenas, or other garden flowers. These worms 
are related to the other large caterpillars which feed on tobacco, 
tomatoes, etc. 

Leaf Eating Beetles. — There are many beetles, large and small, 
which infest grape leaves. They can all be reduced by the use of 
arsenate of lead or Paris green, or those which drop to the ground 
when disturbed may be collected in large niunbcrs on sheets spread 
below. 

The most notable of these because of its evil work in the central 
part of the State, and because the grub destroys the roots of the vine 
causing it to be called the "grape root worm," and the beetle riddles 
the leaves and young fruit. It is Adoxus vilis and a special study of 
it has been made by Professor H. J. Quayle, of the University Experi- 
ment Station, the results of which are published in Bulletin 195 of 
the station and remedies suggested. The beetle is about one-fifth of 
an inch in length and is black or brown. 



INSECTS UPON BARK OR SURFACE OF LEAX^ES 
OF FRUIT 

Leaf Lice. — Leaves of fruit trees, especially the apple and plum, 
are sometimes almost covered with lice or aphides of different colors, 
from light green to black, some individuals having wings and some 
wingless. Available remedies for all these leaf lice are the kerosene 
emulsions and other mixtures which will be given later as summer 




Wingless partheno-genetic female. Wingless female. 

Forms of Aphids or Plant Lice. 



470 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

washes for scale insects, with a spray nozzle which sends spray 
upwards, so as to reach the under sides of the leaves. \'ery often 
these pests are apparently cleared out by lady-birds and other insects 
which devour them. The engraving shows the general form of the 
aphis tribe. 

Thrips. — Very minute insects infesting buds, leaves and blos- 
soms of pears, prunes, cherries, peaches and many other trees and 
plants. The attack on leaves and buds causes them to wither and fall 
off. Indeed complete defoliation may follow their attack. When 
thrips infest fruit blossoms the essential parts are eaten off by the 
insects and the attacked blossom sets no fruit. Much damage is done 
by the insect and thorough investigation has been pursued by several 
investigators of the Bureau of Entomology of the U. S. Department 
of Agriculture, and by the California Experiment Station. Early 
results indicate that the insect is capable of control by spring spraying 
with several insecticides. A United States Department of Agricul- 
ture bulletin and a bulletin by Earl Morris, County Commissioner of 
Santa Clara, by the Agricultural Experiment Station at Berkeley, 
both deal with this problem. The tobacco emulsion of the U. S. 
Department of Agriculture is considered the standard spray. It is 
as follows: Water, 12 gallons; whale oil soap, 30 lbs.; distillate (32 
to 34 degrees Baume), 20 lbs. For spraying, use one part to twenty 
parts of water and then add to each 200 gallons of the spray, one pint 
of tobacco extract containing 40 per cent nicotine or about three and 
one-half gallons of tobacco extract containing 2^ per cent of nicotine. 

Spraying can be done with safety to opening buds, but should not 
be sprayed on trees in full bloom, and its use can be resumed imme- 
diately after the blossoms have fallen, and later on the foliage for 
adults and larvse. The first application should properly be made when 
the thrips are coming from the ground in maximum numbers and 
before the cluster buds are too far advanced. This period in the San 
Jose district is early in March, but it of course differs for the several 
varieties of fruits. An effort should be made to kill all adults in an 
orchard before March 15, when practically all thrips are out of the 
ground and when egg-laying on the stems of leaves or bloom begins. 

The necessity for spraying will depend upon the number in a 
blossom. As the blossoms are barely opening the thrips should be 
shaken out of a few blossoms on white paper. If only two or three 
are in a blossom, it is probable that spraying may be omitted. If 
they are more numerous, it is quite certain that spraying will be 
required. 

Vine Hoppers. — Very minute, yellowish, jumping insects infest- 
ing grape-vines very early in the season, and multiplying rapidly. The 
vine hopper (often called incorrectly the vine thrips) is the most 
widely distributed and most uniformly present of all the grape insects 
occurring in the State. It occurs in injurious numbers, however, 
chiefly in the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys. It is also present 
in the coast counties, but rarely in sufficient numbers to do much injury. 
Another large species (Tctfigo)iia atropunctata) occurs in these locali- 
ties and sometimes does considerable injury in the early part of the 



TREATMENT OF VI XE HOPPERS 471 

season. The principal injury caused by this insect is due to the extrac- 
tion of the plant juices. These arc sucked out by means of a sharp 
beak or proboscis, which is inserted into the plant tissues. 

A method of control practiced by some growers is the use of a 
hopper cage in the early spring when the young shoots of the vine 
are about four or five inches long. The hopper cage consists of a 
framework of laths over which is tacked a double layer of mosquito 
wire netting or a single 20-mesh wire screen. The bottom consists of 
a shallow pan or tray made by turning up about an inch of the edges 
of a sheet of light galvanized iron. One entire side of the cage is left 
open, and there is a \ -shaped opening in the tray at the bottom which 
allows the cage to be pushed over the vine. The base of the V-shaped 
opening in the bottom is padded with leather and the vine is bumped 
and the hoppers jarred off, at the same time that the cage is being 
swung into position. The sides of the cage and the tray at the bottom 
are smeared w^ith crude oil, and the hoppers as they are jarred off are 
caught in the oil. 

If there is a breeze blowing the cage can be operated with the 
open side facing the wind and practically no hoppers will escape. If, 
however, the day is calm and warm and the hoppers are particularly 
active a curtain can readily be dropped over the open side as the cage 
is pushed on to the vine, and it will prevent any from escaping. 

The V-shaped opening which might allow hoppers to drop to the 
ground in front of the vine can be covered with canvas, as follows : 
Take two pieces of canvas about the shape of the opening and a little 
wider. Double this once on itself and between the two layers sew in 
pieces of three-fourths inch rubber tubing transversely. These are 
then firmly tacked on the sides of the opening as shown in the engrav- 
ing. This will allow the cage to be pushed in on the vine and the 
flexibility of the tubing will bring the canvas immediately into position 
again. This with the curtain in front, shuts off all possibility of escape. 

If catching the over-wintering hoppers is not practicable, the next 
opportunity for effective work lies in killing the young insects, as 
they appear from eggs placed in the leaf-tissue by these over-wintering 
adults, before they get their wings. These young hoppers may be 
killed by means of a spray ai)plicd to the under side of the leaves, and 
this will be during May or the first part of June, depending upon the 
season and locality. The exact time may be determined by watching 
their developtnent. When some of them have reached almost full 
size it is time to start the spraying. The spray to use is the Standard 
spray for thrips given on the preceding page. The spray should be 
thoroughly applied from below so as to strike the under side of the 
leaves, for the spray will kill only such hoppers as are hit. 

False Chinch-Bugs. — Small, grayish-brown insects (about one- 
eighth of an inch long when fully grown), which injure the vine 
leaves. They drop to the ground when the vine is disturbed, and may 
be caught as just described for vine hoppers. 

Grasshoppers. — These pests often invade orchard and vineyard, 

and sometimes kill the plants outright by completely defoliating them. 
This plague has been successfully met by the use of the arsenic and 



472 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



bran remedy, prepared as already described for cut-worms. A table- 
spoonful is thrown by the side of each vine or tree. If placed on 
shingles about the vineyard, much of the poison not eaten may be 
afterward gathered up and saved.* 

Red Spider and Other Mites. — Very minute insects, usually dis- 
cernible only with the aid of a magnifier, sometimes destroy the leaves, 
causing them to lose their color and health by their inroads upon the 
leaf surface. The red spider and yellow mite are conspicuous exam- 
ples ; they infest nearly all orchard trees, especially the almond, prune, 
and plum. The eggs of the red spider are ruby-red globules, as 
seen with the magnifier, and are deposited in vast numbers upon the 
bark of the tree, and leave a red color upon the finger if it is rubbed 




Hawk Moth larva. (Philampeles achemon Drury.) 



over them. The eggs are very hard to kill, and treatment is most 
effective when applied in the spring and summer after the mites are 
hatched out. The popular remedy is a thorough dusting of the trees 
with sulphur. On a large scale the sulphur is applied in a cloud by 
means of a modification of the broad-cast barley sower or with the 
sulphur machines specially made for this purpose. On a small scale 
it may be applied with a bellows as for grape-vines, or shaken from a 
cheese-cloth bag at the end of a pole. Sulphur sprays have been found 
most effective in controlling the red spider. The ingredients of the 
sulphur sprays are prepared as follows : 

*For the protection of nurseries, orchards, and vineyards it is often necessary to resort 
to various devices for excluding the grasshopper, or for destroying them upon adjoining 
fields. Publications describing such devices are Bulletins 142, 170 and 192, University 
Experiment Station, Berkeley. 




o 

a 

a 



O 




I 



a, 



FIGHTING TIIR RED SPIDER 473 

Sulfid of Potash Stock Solution. — Granulated, powdered concen- 
trated lye, 15 pounds; sulphur, 18 pounds; water to make 20 jj^allons. 
Stir the sulphur and lye together in a vessel which will allow jdcnty 
of room for hoiling. \\'hen well mixed, add about one pint of water, 
placing it in a slight hollow in the mixture, and stir in slowly. The 
mixture will soon begin to melt and boil, forming a red fluid ; stir 
until the boiling ceases, and then add water to make 20 gallons. This 
stock solution will keep for awhile, or indefinitely when protected from 
the air. 

Preparation of the Spray Mixture with Sulfid of Potash. — Place 
10 to 15 pounds of sublimed sulphur, or 14 to 20 pounds of ground 
sulphur in a spray tank with 4 gallons of flour paste and 1 to 2 gallons 
of the sulfid of potash stock solution ; add water to make 100 gallons. 
For summer or spring spraying after the danger of rains is over, 
the minimum amount of sulphur is sufficient. 

Flour-paste Spray for Red Spider. — Mr. W. B. Parker of the 
Bureau of Entomology of the U. S. Department of Agriculture has 
demonstrated the efficacy of a paste spray to be used during the 
summer while the insects are active : 

Take 8 pounds of cheap flour and stir into a thin batter by adding a little 
cold water at a time until 8 gallons of water is used. Mash out all lumps. 

Cook until paste is formed, stirring constantly to prevent caking or burning. 
Cooking slowly until the paste just begins to boil will usually be about right. If 
the paste is not sufficiently cooked, the resulting spray will not be effective, and 
if overcooked the paste will harden when thoroughly cool, and will not mi.\ 
with water very readily. 

Add cold water to the properly cooked paste, to make 100 gallons in the 
spray tank. Keep constantly stirred while spraying. Apply thoroughly to both 
the upper and under surfaces of the leaves. Use a nozzle making a coarse spray 
under 150 lbs. pressure, as the driving force is necessary to penetrate the webs 
and reach the spider. A tine mist spray would not be effective. This is a 
contact insecticide and the liquid must actually touch the spider. Watch care- 
fully, and if newly hatched spiders are appearing, repeat the spraying in about 
seven days. Commercial paste, ready for diluting, can be purchased if desired. 

Phylloxera. — This pest of the grape-vine is closely allied to the 
aphides, and lives both upon the root and leaf, though in this State 
the root type prevails and the leaf form is seldom .seen. No remedy 
has yet been found effectual, but escape is had by using roots resisting 
the insects, as described in Chapter XXVL The insects are recognized, 
by the aid of a magnifier, as minute yellow lice, chiefly on the rootlets. 
Full account of the insect is given in Bulletin 192, University of 
California Experiment Station. 

The Woolly Aphis. — A louse of dark red color, occurring in 
groups, covered with a woolly substance which exudes from the 
bodies of the insects. The woolly aphis is an almost universal pest of 
the apple, though as shown by experience, some varieties are prac- 
tically exempt from it. As the pest lives both upon root and top, its 
annihilation is impossible, but it may be reduced so that the fruit ful- 
ness and vigor of the tree are not impaired. The use of wood ashes 
around the tree close tcf the trunk has been beneficial. Removing the 
earth above the main roots, in a circle two to four feet in diameter 
and soaking the ground with kerosene emulsion, using from three to 



474 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 




Root injury by Phylloxera and forms of insect 

A healthy root; b, root on which the lice are woiking, representing the knots and swell- 
ings caused by their punctures; c, root deserted by lice and beginning to decay; d, d, d, show 
how the lice appear on the larger roots; e, the nymph; g, winged female. After Riley. 



five gallons to the tree, has been found very effective in killing the root 
form. The insect on the branches and twigs can be reduced by spray- 
ing with the summer washes soon to be given for scale insects. Lady- 
birds often clear away the woolly aphis, after reproduction has fallen 
below the normal, from the tree above ground. Some attention is 
being given to trial of resistant roots and it is likely that such roots 
will be generally used here as in Australia.- How such trees are grown 
is described on page 197. 

Scale Insects. — This is a large group of pests which occasion 
greater loss and trouble to our fruit growers than all other pests 
combined. There are many species, and no orchard tree is exempt 
from the attacks of one or more of them, though some trees are appar- 
ently more popular with the pests than others. The fruit grower should 
study their life history and classification as laid down in the works 
on entomology. It will only be possible in this connection to introduce 
a few engravings, by which some of the most prominent pests can be 
recognized, and to give some of the remedies which are now being 
most successfully employed against them. 



VARIOUS SCALE INSECTS 475 

San Jose Scale (.Ispidiotiis pcrniciosus). — This was formerly one 
of the worst and most widespread of the species of scales preying 
on deciduous fruit trees in California, but at present, owing to the 
energetic war that fruit growers have had to wage against it, has 
become of minor importance, and, in fact, has practically disappeared 
from some regions where it was formerly most injurious. The work 
of this species is generally readily distinguished from other species 
of scale by the red blotches which are formed wherever it stings any 
part of the tree — either branch, leaf or fruit. These red blotches are 
more pronounced in some varieties than in others. When the scales 
are present in large numbers, it causes a complete discoloration of the 
bark clear to the sap-wood. This scale has its preference among the 
deciduous fruits. The apricot and certain varieties of cherries and 
plums are but little affected. 

The Greedy Scale (Aspidiotus rapax). — This species affects many 
kinds of trees, deciduous as well as evergreens. Scale, about one- 
sixteenth of an inch in length ; form, ovoid ; color, drab ; female, bright 
yellow. This insect is found in many places along the coast. It is 
distinguishable easily from the Aspidiotus pcriciosus by its whitish 
yellow color, contrasting with the dark color of the latter. Generally 
this scale has only one brood in the season, and, as compared with the 
San Jose scale, it is of little danger, owing to its slow-breeding pro- 
pensities. 

Oyster Shell Scale of Apple (Lcpidosaphcs ulnii). — This scale 
affects the apple chiefly, although sometimes the pear also. Owing to 
the thickness of the armor, it is one of the most difficult of the scales 
to exterminate. It is easily recognized by its long curved form. 

Rose and Berry Scale (Aulacaspis rosae). — This scale has such 
striking forms that it can be readily recognized. The round white 
scale is that of the feinale, the elongated one with ridges is the male. 
The rose scale infests, besides roses, various fruit bushes, especially 
blackberries and raspberries. Remedy: For raspberries and black- 
berries the cutting down of the canes to the ground should be adopted, 
and the stumps sprayed or washed with kerosene emulsion, recom- 
mended under the head of general remedies for scale insects. 

Oleander Scale (Aspidiotus hcdcrac). — This scale is small, flat, 
yellowish-white. It affects a great many trees, especially evergreens. 
Lemon trees become badly affected, and the fruit is sometimes com- 
pletely covered. The olive is also subject, and the fruit of the olive 
when infested does not mature well, and wherever a scale is found, a 
green blotch makes its appearance. 

Red Scale of Orange and Lemon. — (Chrysomphalcs anrantii). — 
This scale affects citrus trees in both the coast and interior regions. 
The scale fully grown is one-twelfth of an inch or a little more in 
diameter, center yellow, margin light brown. The appearance of 
trees infested with this pest is very striking, very nnich resembling 
those diseased from other causes, such as bad drainage, the leaf pre- 
senting a mottled appearance, a light blotch around the scale contrast- 



476 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

ing with the natural green of the leaf. The branches are but little 
troubled, but the fruit, like the leaf, becomes completely covered with 
the insects. An orange tree infested with this scale gradually becomes 
sickly and languishes. 

Other Citrus Tree Scales. — Two scales more recently brought 
into this State from Florida are the "purple scale," Lcpidosaphes 
beskii, and the "long scale," Lcpidosaphes gloverii. The red and pur- 
ple scales of citrus trees are only treated successfully by fumigation 
with hydrocyanic acid gas. This treatment is an elaborate one, requir- 
ing special appliances which are fully illustrated and described in 
publications by the Agricultural Experiment Station at Berkeley. 

The Black Scale (Saissctia olcac). — This scale is almost a uni- 
versal pest, especially in regions adjacent to the coast, though it has 
recently demonstrated its ability to endure interior valley conditions. 
It affects citrus fruit trees and some deciduous trees as well, and a 
fungus growing on its exudation causes the black smut, which renders 
tree and fruit unsightly ; but this smut accompanies other scale insects 
as well as this one. It is especially troublesome on the olive, and will 
quickly spread to ornamental plants and vines in the garden. It is a 
very difficult scale to subdue. On citrus trees the fumigation method 
is the only practical recourse. On deciduous fruits it requires both 
winter and summer spraying to hold it in check. It spite of the fact 
that immense numbers are killed by parasites, and perhaps by fungi as 
well, it is still a grievous pest, and should be fought unceasingly. 

Soft Orange Scale (Coccus Hcspcridnm). — This scale is a pest 
of citrus trees the world over. The scale is ovoid, a little wider at 
one end than the other ; length, from one-twelfth to one-seventh of an 
inch ; color, dark brown on convex part, and a lighter brown surround- 
ing margin ; it has two indentations on each side, and one on posterior 
end. This scale prefers to collect on the under sides of the leaves 
along the midrib, the upper sides being covered with smut. It for- 
tunately is usually held in check by natural agencies. 

Brown Apricot Scale. — The apricot tree, though defying the 
most ruinous scales of some other trees, is beset by certain scales. 
The black scale is one and the brown apricot scale another. The 
brown apricot scale (Eulecanimn Armeniacuni) is boat-shaped; when 
reaching maturity, wrinkled ; the color is a shiny brown, darker in 
the center, lighter at the edges. A full-sized scale has a length of a 
quarter of an inch, and a width of one-eighth of an inch. This scale 
attacks nearly all kinds of deciduous fruits, but especially the prune 
and apricot. It is a very hardy scale, and the remarks about the black 
scale apply to it also. 

Other Lecaniums.— There are several other scales on fruit trees ; 
The filbert scale (heinisphcricum), which is common in greenhouses 
and occurs to limited extent on citrus trees ; the frosted scale 
(pniinosum) , very large oval and convex, covered with dense, whitish 
bloom, occurs on deciduous fruit trees. 



VARIOUS BORERS IN FRUIT TREES 477 

Cottony Cushion Scale or Fluted Scale (Iccrya piirchasi). — This 
promised at one time to be the most grievous of all scales in its rapid 
increase and wide range of food plants, but it was speedily reduced by 
an AustraHan ladybird, Noviiis {I'edalia) cardinalis, introduced by 
Albert Koebele. with such success that specimens were for a number 
of years rarely seen, but have recently become abundant in some 
localities. 

Mealy Bugs. — Closely allied to the scales are the mealy bugs 
(species of dactylopius), soft and of a pale pink color, generally cov- 
ered with a whitish mealy powder, hence the name. The common 
species is found in nearly every greenhouse in the world, and in Cali- 
fornia climate lives in the open air on many kinds of plants, and has at 
various times proved quite troublesome. Unless checked by natural 
enemies, the mealy bugs multiply very rapidly, and mass themselves 
in the corners of the leaves. The plants turn black from the fungus 
growth growing on the honeydew, and the bush presents the same 
appearance as a scale-infested plant. With the aid of a magnifier the 
appearance of the mealy bugs, as different from scales can be readily 
recognized. 

Remedies for Scale Insects. — Though most of the scale insects 
are attacked by i)arasitic and predaceous insects, as already stated, 
these natural agencies have generally not proved rapid enough to cope 
with the increase of the scales, and insecticides have to be employed 
to save the fruit and trees. There is a vast number of these washes, 
many of which will do good work if thoroughly applied, which is 
usually the secret of .success. A few which have proved of special 
value will be given at the close of this chapter. 



INSECTS BORING IN TWIG, STEM, OR ROOT 

Peach Twig-Borer or Peach Worm. — This larva is probably 
the most serious insect pest that the California i)each grower has had to 
contend with. The creature hibernates as a young larva in burrows 
in the crotches of the tree. 

As soon as the tree begins to grow in the spring the larva becomes 
active, eats its way out of its winter home and bores into the new 
growing twigs causing them to wither and die. Later generations of 
the worm attack the fruit and from the two forms of attack much loss 
may accrue to the orchardist. 

Destruction of the larvae in their winter burrows overcomes all 
damage from these pests. This can be accomplished by spraying with 
the lime-sulphur compound in the late winter or very early spring 
when the buds are expanding. 

The Common Borer. — An insect which has done vast injury in 
this State is the "tlat-headed apple borer" (chrysobofhris fcmorata). 
It affects chiefly apples, jieaches and plums, etc., which have been 
injured by sunburn. It is a i)ale-colored grub with a brown head, 
the forepart of the body being greatly flattened. The matured beetle 



478 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



is greenish black or bronze colored, copper colored on the under side. 
If any tree receives any damage to the bark, either by sunburn or other 
causes, the borer is sure to find it, and it works itself into the tree, its 
castings being the only guide to its presence. The best remedy is pre- 
vention by protection from sunburn, as described in Chapter XI. 
Whenever a borer is removed, the debris and dead wood should be 
entirely cleaned out and the smooth surface left, taking care to pre- 
serve the bark as much as possible. Then the wound should be smeared 
over with grafting wax, and a rag tied about it. In this manner young 
trees have been saved, but if seriously attacked, it is better to put in 
a sound tree and protect it. 

Sun-Scald Borer. — Another borer which delights in sunburned 
trees is a minute beetle, making a burrow hardly larger than a pinhole. 
It is known as the sun-scald beetle {Xylohorxis xylographus). The 
remedy, as in the former case, is to prevent injury to the bark, for this 
precedes the attack of the beetle. 




Peach twig showing winter burrow, natural size. 

The Olive Twig-Borer.— A reddish brown beetle boring into 
twigs of olive and other orchard trees, and grape canes, at the axils 
of the leaves. It is Polycaon confcrtus, and it breeds in decaying logs 
and stumps and old grape-vines, apparently visiting the fruit trees 
merely to gratify its appetite. Its work is not fatal to the tree, but 
unless proper pruning and attention be afterwards given, it may spoil 
the shape of the young tree. Remove the affected branches below the 
burrows of the beetle, or if it would be difificult to replace a branch, 
see that the beetle is destroyed and the entrance to the hole stopped up 
— this to prevent decay and a weak branch following. Spraying with 
ill-smelling solutions may prevent their attack, but the insect has not 
been sufficiently abundant to invite serious effort thus far. 

Peach Crown-Borer. — A grub boring into peach trees just below 
the ground surface, its presence being shown by copious gumming. 
The insect, which has become quite troublesome in Santa Clara County, 
resembles the Eastern crown-borer of the peach, but is a distinct species 
(Sanninoidca opalescens). The best methods of suppressing this insect 



PEACH TWIG AND ROOT BORERS 



479 



are three. A preventive treatment consists in coating the base of the 
tree a few inclies below the surface and a foot above with a whitewash, 
with a pint of coal tar to each five pounds of quicklime, put in while 
the lime is slacking". More recently the application of asphaltum has 
been demonstrated by Earl Morris, horticultural commissioner of Santa 
Clara County, to be very efficient. Hard asphaltum (grades "C" and 




Peach Worm Burrow laid open, the worm beginning spring work — 
greatly enlarged. 

"D") was applied early in the spring to badly infested trees from which 
the borers had not been dug. A thick, heavy coating prevents both the 
issuance and the entrance of about 95 to 98 per cent of the insects, the 
degree of efficiency depending upon the thoroughness of the applica- 
tion. Asphaltum does not penetrate, crack, or deteriorate, or bind the 
tree, since it yields to the slightest pressure. 




A nearly full-grown larva of the Peach-tree Borer, Magnified four diameters. 



The material is a])plied warm with a brush from five inches below 
to five inches above the ground. It is easier to ajjply two or more coat- 
ings than to try to put on more at one time than will adhere firmly. 
The first coating will harden very quickly, and the second can be ap- 
plied without loss of time. Two coatings are generally sufficient unless 
the bark is very rough. But in any case, a thick uniform covering is 
absolutely necessary for the best results. 



480 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

The method in most general use is known as the "worming process." This 
consists essentially in carefully cutting out and kiUing the individual borers. 
Special tools have been devised for this work. A full description of these 
processes can be found in Bulletin 143, University of California, College of 
Agriculture. 

Strawberry Root-Borer.- — The larva of another clear-winged 
moth (Aegeria iiupropria), boring into the root of the strawberry 
plants, found in various portions of the State, and doing considerable 
damage, forcing the growers to resort to replanting much earlier than 
otherwise would be necessary. Flooding the vines has a great tendency 
to kill out the worms, and if the water was retained, say four or five 
days during the winter, all over the plants, doubtless all the larvae 
would be killed. 

Currant and Gooseberry Borer. — A white worm eating out the 
central pith of currant and gooseberry plants — the larva of another 
clear-winged moth (Aegeria tipxdiformis). Spraying with whale-oil 
soap after the crop is gathered, pruning out and burning in the fall of 
all old wood which can be spared, will reduce the evil. 

The Raspberry Cane Borer. — This intruder is one of the family 
Tenthredinideae, or saw fiies. The very small maggot or larva will be 
found by peeling the bark carefully. This larva can not crawl, there- 
fore if the tips be cut and the worm is taken out he will die. A better 
way is to cut all tips, as fast as they show signs of wilting, and burn 
them. Thorough work in topping is alsolutely necessary, so as to be 
sure that none of the worms remain to produce flies. Topping causes 
the canes to throw out laterals, thus producing more fruit. The canes 
are not afifected after July. 

Another cane-borer, occurring in the foothills, has been identified 
by E. O. Essig, as the larva of a horn-tail. It is fully described in 
Bulletin 12 of the California State Board of Horticulture. Its treat- 
ment is like that just described. 



INSECTS DEVOURING THE PULP OF FRUITS 

The Apple Worm. — The codlin moth {Carpocapsa pomonella) is 
one of the great pests of the State. It preys chiefly upon the apple 
and pear, but the quince and other large fruits are sometimes invaded 
by it. The first moths appear at some time after the blossoming of 
the apple, and deposit their eggs on the young fruit, or on adjacent 
leaves. The young worm hatches in from seven to ten days, generally 
seeks the eye or calyx, and eats its way into the fruit, and in twenty 
days its full growth is attained, and it goes out through the side of the 
apple, and, by means of its spinnaret, reaches the ground or some large 
branch. If landed on the ground, it usually seeks the trunk, which it 
ascends and soon finds a hiding-place under the loose bark, where it 
spins its cocoon, and in eight or ten days comes forth, a moth, ready to 
lay eggs anew. The egg is laid all over the fruit and especially at a 
point where two fruits touch. Usually we have in this State two 
broods, at least, but sometimes three, and, naturally, if unchecked, the 



FIGHTING THE APPLE WORM 481 

increase from the first to the last is enormous. The worms escaping 
from the fruit in the fall hibernate as larvae under the loose bark of 
the tree, or in store-houses, or in any available dry place. 

On the basis of long experience in the Watsonville district Mr. 
W. H. \'olck, county entomologist, gives the following outline of opera- 
tions against the apple worm : 

There are two broods in a season. The first develops from worms that have 
wintered over in protected places both above and in the ground. The moths 
of the first generation begin emerging in April, but very few eggs are laid before 
the middle of May. In this locality, egg-laying is then continuous until the last 
of June. 

The full-grown worms of the first generation after emerging from the apples 
seek some hiding place where they may rest for a few days, transforming into 
pupa and then into full-grown moths. 

The moths of the second generation begin laying eggs early in August and 
may continue to do so as late as October or November. It is the worms of the 
second generation that do the greatest amount of damage. 

The codlin moth lays its eggs on the surface of the leaves and fruit. The 
eggs are about the size of a small pin-head, circular and flat. The color varies 
from white to pink and red. These eggs are easily seen when the observer 
knows what to look for. 

The young worms hatch from the eggs about ten days after laying, and 
then begin crawling about in search of fruit to burrow into. This short period 
between the hatching of the egg and the entrance into the apple is the only 
time that spraying operations can prove effective. It is clearly impossible to 
accomplish anything by the use of sprays that will only kill by contact, for such 
sprays would have to be applied nearly every da3^ The spraying operation must 
then leave a deposit of some substance on the fruit that will kill the worms 
when they attempt to burrow through the rind. The only substance now 
known that answers these requirements are the compounds of arsenic. 

Arsenic is, however, poisonous to plants and must be applied with caution. 
The arsenic compound used must be entirely insoluble in water, and not subject 
to weathering, in order that it shall be perfectly safe. The wet fogs of the 
Pajaro valley summers give arsenical spray compounds a very severe test, and 
it has been found that only the best quality of arsenate of lead is able to stand it. 
Arsenate of lead may do very severe burning, however, if it is not of the 
proper quality. 

It is a well-known fact that a large percentage of the worms of the first 
generation enter at the blossom ends of the apples. This part is protected or 
more or less closed over by the leaves of the calyx. 

The calyx cups close very shortly after the petals fall, and so it is advised 
by the best authorities to spray as soon after the falling of the blossoms as 
possible in order to leave a deposit of poison there. In the Pajaro valley and 
adjoining sections, weather conditions often prevent spraying at this time, but 
where possible to apply, the calyx cup spraying is advised. 

Good results have been obtained by spraying in the early part of May, 
which is considerably after the calyx cups have closed. Spraying at this time 
gives much the same effect as the calyx cup application, especially where it is 
applied with proper thoroughness. This early spraying is applied before any 
worms have appeared and is intended merely to have the poison in readiness 
for the insects when they do come. 

The first codlin moth spraying should contain Bordeaux Mixture as a pre- 
caution against the scab: 

Bordeaux Mixture — Copper sulphate 3 pounds, lime 4 pounds, water 50 
gallons. 

.'\rscnate of Lead — Use 2^2 to 3 pounds of arsenate of lead to each 50 gallons 
of Bordeaux. 

The Bordeaux Mixture should he prepared first, and enough space left in 
the tank to allow for the addition of the arsenate of lead and the water required 
to mix it. 



482 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

The second spraying should be applied from the last of May to the first 
ten days in June, and is intended to augment the effect of the first spraying by 
further covering the rapidly expanding fruit. 

For this spraying use 2 pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of water. 
No Bordeaux should be used with this spraying, for the previous sprayings con- 
taining Bordeaux will have controlled the scab, and the further use of the 
fungicide is likely to russet the apples. 

Very few eggs are laid during July, so if the second spraying has been 
applied about the first of June it should suffice to control the first generation 
attack. The second generation worms begin to appear about the first of August, 
so a spraying is due at this time. 

For the third spraying, use 2 pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of 
water. 

If the apples are to remain on the trees through September they should receive 
another spraying about the first of this month. 

For the fourth spraying, if the other three have been applied according to 
directions, use l^A pounds of arsenate of lead to SO gallons of water. 

The schedule of sprayings above laid out should control the codlin moth 
under average conditions, and even where the insect is extremely abundant 
should yield 95 per cent clean fruit. 

The codlin moth is much affected by weather conditions, and if there is a 
large amount of cold fog during the summer the damage will be much reduced. 

The Peach Worm. — As already stated, the larva of the peach 
moth, which early in the spring bores into the twigs, is sometimes found 
later in the season in the flesh of the peach. Hence the importance of 
saving the fruit by proper treatment of the hibernating worms which 
emerge as the blossom buds are opening. 

The Diabrotica.— A light green beetle with twelve spots on his 
back (Diabrotica soror), is sometimes very injurious to early fruit, by 
eating into it when ripe. The insect also eats leaves and blossoms. As 
the insect attacks the fruit just as it is ready to pick, it is impossible 
to apply any disagreeable or poisonous spray. Sometimes the insects 
are driven away by dense smoke from fires in and around the orchard. 

The Dried Fruit Worm. — Dried fruit is often seriously injured 
after packing, by a small worm, larva of a moth not yet determined. 
The eggs are deposited on the fruit either while drying or while in the 
packing-house, or through the cloth of the sacks, or seams of the 
package. The eggs may be killed on the fruit before packing, by 
dipping in boiling water, or by heating in an oven and after that pre- 
venting the access of the moth. Infested fruit can also be treated by 
bisulphide vapor, the method being the same as described for nursery 
stock below. 

ANTS AND YELLOW JACKETS 

These insects are often of serious trouble during fruit drying. Ants 
are most effectually disposed of by slightly opening their holes in the 
ground by thrusting down a crowbar and pouring in a couple of ounces 
of carbon bisulphide and closing again with earth. Yellow jackets 
also nest in the ground in old squirrel or gopher holes, and they too 
can be suiTocated with carbon bisulphide or by pouring in gasoline or 
kerosene and firing it. Hornets which nest in trees are troublesome, but 
are much less numerous than the cave-dwelling species. 



DISINFECTING NURSERY TREES 483 

To destroy yellow jackets by trapping and poison is also feasible. 
W. F. Moyer, of Napa, proceeds in this way : 

Make a thin fruit syrup by mashing the boiling ripe fruit, strain it and add 
a httle sugar. Phice the soup dishes on the drying ground where the "jackets" 
are thickest. When the top of the syrup is covered with drowned and drowning 
"jackets," scoop them out with the hand and crush them with the foot. They 
won't sting unless you pinch ihcm. As the syrup evaporates fill up the dishes 
with water. If a day or two should elapse when no fruit is cut, be sure the 
traps are well cared for, as they will swarm around them thicker than ever, 
especially if the weather is hot. For dishes to place the .syrup in, cut kerosene 
cans so as to make two cans, each about six and one-half inches deep. 

Poisoning- to carry destruction to the young brood is also practicable. 
Dr. J. H. Miller, of San Leandro, saved his fruit in this way: 

I bought half a dozen beef livers, five pounds of arsenious acid and several 
pounds of baling wire. Cutting the liver into pieces as large as a man's fist, I 
put them into a hot solution of arsenious acid, and, bending the wire into a hook 
at each end, I suspended the pieces from the lower limbs of trees all around 
my drying-ground. The fruit was soon deserted, and the little insects busily 
working at the fragrant liver. The insects carried pieces of the liver up to their 
nests, and besides causing the death of those that had been destroying my fruit, 
the ne.xt generation of yellow jackets was also destroyed, and so complete was 
the destruction that there were not enough of the little pests in that neighborhood 
the following year to require a repetition of the treatment. There is no risk 
in so using the poison, for the yellow jackets will not return to the fruit, and 
bees will not go near the meat. 

DISINFECTING NURSERY STOCK 

Cuttings, scions, young trees and vines, etc., can be freed from 
insects by inclosing in a tight box or cask and placing a saucerful of 
carbon bisulphide on the top of them, covering it with canvas or any 
tight-fitting cover. The bisulphide vapor will destroy all insect life in 
forty minutes. 

Disinfecting such materials on a larger scale may be done in this 
way: 

Use square canvas sheets, sixteen to twenty feet in diameter, made of the 
best ducking, double stitched and then painted with boiled linseed oil to make 
it gas proof. The canvas must be perfectly dry before it is rolled up, or it is 
liable to be destroyed by spontaneous combustion. To fumigate evergreen 
stock use one ounce of cyanide of potassium (in lumps, not pulverized), one fluid 
ounce of commercial sulphuric acid, and two fluid ounces of water to one 
hundred cubic feet of enclosed space. For deciduous and hardy trees, when 
dormant, use one-fourth more of each of the above. When the canvas has 
been placed over the stock to be fumigated, prepare the charge. Take a three or 
four-gallon glazed earthenware jar, into which pour the necessary quantity ot 
water, then the sulphuric acid, and place it well under the canvas, the edges of 
which are secured with soil or in some way so as to prevent the gas escaping, 
with the exception of the edge immediately in front of the jar. The proper 
amount of cyanide of potassium is then dropped into the jar from a long scoop, 
and the tent is immediately closed, and remains so for one hour. 



INSECTICIDES 

It is hoped that thi^ chapter will convey useful hints in the warfare 
against insects. Whenever questions arise which are not met thereby, 
appeal should be made to the University Experiment Station at Berke- 



484 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

ley. A condensed statement of useful insecticides is issued by the 
Station, prepared by Professor H. J. Quayle, as follows : 

1. Lime Sulphur: 

Quicklime, 33 pounds ; sulphur, 66 pounds ; water, 200 gallons. 
Sift sulphur through box with screen bottom into boiling tank with 
50 gallons of water. Add the lime and boil 45 minutes to one hour. 
Stir frequently. Strain through cheese cloth or burlap and dilute to 
make 200 gallons. If extra lime is desired strain in milk of lime when 
spray is ready for use. 

2. Commercial Lime Sulphur: 

If of 32° Baume dilute 1 to 9. If 36° dilute 1 to 11. 
Either of the above for San Jose and other armored scales to be 
applied during dormant season, preferably in early winter or early 
spring. For Peach Moth, as the buds are expanding in the spring. 

3. Distillate 28° to 34° Baume : 
Distillate, 10 to 20 gallons ; water, 200 gallons. 

For use only with power sprayer with good agitator, which is neces- 
sary to make a mechanical mixture of the oil and water. 

For the Brown Apricot, Black, and other unarmored scales, and for 
Woolly Aphis, to be applied during dormant season, preferably in early 
winter. 

4. Distillate Potash : 

Distillate, 10 gallons ; lye or caustic soda, 5 pounds ; water, 200 gallons. 
Preparation and uses same as under 3. Has the advantage of free- 
ing tree from moss. 

5. Distilllate Emulsion : 

Stock emulsion: Hot water, 12 gallons; fish oil (see 10) or whale-oil 
soap, 30 pounds ; distillate 30° to 34°, 20 gallons. 
Add soap to hot water in spray tank with agitator going. After 
soap is dissolved add oil slowly, keeping mixture agitated. Pump out 
through nozzle at 175 pounds pressure in storage tank. 

For use take: Stock emulsion, 11 gallons; blackleaf 40, 1 pint; water, 
200 gallons. 
Place oil emulsion in spray tank, start agitator and add the water. 
When diluted add the Blackleaf. 

For thrips. Black Peach Aphis, and other plant lice. 

6. Kerosene Emulsion : 

Dissolve Yz pound soap in 1 gallon hot water ; add 1 gallon kerosene. 
Mix thoroughly with spray pump by turning nozzle back into mix- 
ture. 

a. For plant lice and other sucking insects during growing season, 
dilute with 15 to 25 gallons water. 

b. For scale insects, Woolly Aphis and other sucking insects during 
dormant season, dilute with 5 to 10 gallons water. 

For use on small scale with hand sprayer. 



WELL TESTED INSECTICIDES 485 

6a. Kerosene Emulsion. Kitchen formula: 

Dissolve 1 inch cube soap in 1 pint hot water; add 1 pint kerosene. Churn 
with egg beater. 

For growing plants, dilute to 2 or 3 gallons water. For dormant 
plants, 1 gallon, 

7. Miscbible Oils: 

Commercial preparations of oil so treated as to mix directly with 
water. Follow directions on container. Uses same as 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 
and 10. 

8. Straight Kerosene or Water White Oil: 

Water white oil (42° Baume) or kerosene, 20 gallons; water, 200 gallons. 
In use for scale insects of citrus trees. Application by power outfit. 

9. Soap Solution : 

Soap, 1 pound; water, 5 to 15 gallons. 
Whale-oil or fish-oil soap preferable, but for small amounts any 
yellow laundry soap will answer. 

For plant lice and other sucking insects during summer. 

9a. Soap Solution. Kitchen formula : 
1% inch cube soap; 1 gallon warm water. 

10. Homemade Soap: 

Water, 6 gallons; lye (98%), 2 pounds; fish oil, IJ/2 gallons. 

Add lye to water in boiler. When dissolved and water boiling, pour 
in the fish oil, stirring in mean time, and boil slowly for two hours. 
This will give about 40 pounds soap. 

For use, dilute with 5 to 15 gallons water for each pound. 

For same pests as No. 9. 

11. Tobacco or Nicotine: 

a. Blackleaf 40 (40% nicotine), 1 pint; water, 200 gallons. 

b. Tobacco stems, 1 pound; water, 4 gallons. 

Steep stems in 1 gallon warm water and dilute to 4 gallons. 

For plant lice and other sucking insects during growing season. 
For Woolly Aphis and Peach Aphis underground. A liberal solution, 
or the dry dust in early winter, about the base of the tree, the surface 
soil first being removed. 

12. Tobacco Soap: 

Blackleaf 40, 1 pound (1-10 gal.) ; cresol soap, 1 gallon — or 
Whale-oil soap, 10 pounds; water. 200 gallons. 

The cresol soap requires no heating. 

Uses same as 11. Penetrating and wetting power better. 

13. Lime Sulphur Tobacco: 

Commercial lime sulphur 36°, 2.1 gallons; blackleaf 40, 14 fluid ounces; 
water, 200 gallons. 

For Orange Thrips. 

14. Carbolic Lime: • 

Quicklime, 150 pounds; crude carbolic acid, 2 gallons; water, 200 gallons. 
For Pear Thrips. 



486 california fruits: how to grow them 

15. Sulphur: 

a. Dry. Thoroughly dust over foliage, preferably when moist with dew. 

Hydrated lime about equal parts with sulphur will increase adhesiveness. 
h. Spray. Sulphur, 30 pounds; lime; (as milk of lime), 15 pounds; water, 

200 gallons. 
c. Spray. Commercial lime sulphur, 4 to 5 gallons ; water, 200 gallons. 

For Red Spiders and Silver Mite. 

16. Lead Arsenate: 

Lead arsenate, 6 to 12 pounds ; water, 200 gallons. 
First mix arsenate with 2 or 3 gallons of water. 

For Codlin Moth and most defoliating insects. 

16a.. Lead Arsenate. Kitchen formula : 

Lead arsenate, 1 tablespoonful (1 oz.) ; water, 1 gallon. 

17. Paris Green: 

Paris green, 1 1-3 to 2 pounds ; water, 200 gallons. 
For Codlin Moth and most defoliating insects. 

Not to be used along coast or moist situations where injury is likely 
to result to fohage. 

\7a. Paris Green. Kitchen formula : 

Paris green, 1 teaspoonful (]4 oz.) ; lime, 3 teaspoonfuls ; water, 2 gallons. 

18. Zinc Arsenite: 

Zinc arsenite, 2 to 6 pounds ; water, 200 gallons. 
A powerful poison for resistant insects, as the Tussock Moth, or 
for early spraying for Canker Worm and Codhng Moth in the dry 
interior cHmates. 

19a. Poisoned Bait. Kitchen formula : 

Bran, 10 pounds ; Paris green, 1 pound — or 

White arsenic, J^ pound ; molasses, J4 gallon ; water, 2 gallons. 

Mix paris green with the bran dry. Add the molasses to the water 
and mix into the bran, making a moist paste. 

For Cut Worms and Grasshoppers, distribute a small handful about 
the base of the vine or tree, or scatter about plants in the garden. May 
be distributed broadcast for Grasshoppers and Army Worms. 

20. Carbon Bisulphide: 

For treatment of stored products and underground insects. 
Usual dosage, 1 pint to 1,000 cubic feet space. 

Place liquid in saucers or shallow vessels above material to be 
treated. Inflammable ; avoid lights. 

For underground insects, a tablespoonful in holes 3 or 4 feet apart. 

21. Resin Dipping Solution: 

Resin, 20 pounds ; caustic soda or lye, 8 pounds ; fish oil, 3 pints ; water, 
100 gallons. 

Boil resin and caustic soda in 50 gallons of water for 1 hour. Dilute 
to 100 gallons. 

In use for dipping citrus nursery stock for scale insects and Red 
Spiders. 

Kerosene emulsion and lime sulphur solution also used for dipping 
deciduous nursery stock. 



well tested insecticides 487 

22. Hydrocyanic Acid Gas : 

Potassium cyanide 1 ounce 

Sulphuric acid 1 fiuidounce 

Water 3 fluidounces 

or 

Sodium cyanide 1 ounce 

Sulphuric acid 1 J/2 fluidounces 

Water 2 fluidounces 

Place water ami acid in earthenware vessel and add cyanide. To be 
used under tents or tight rooms or boxes. 

For fumigating buildings or nursery stock, 1 ounce of cyanide to 
each 100 cubic feet for 1 hour. 

For scale insects on citrus trees, maximum or Purple Scale dosage 
found by mutiplying distance around by distance over top of tenteo' 
tree and pointing off two places. Example : 

Distance around Distance over 

40 feet X 20 feet = 8 ounces cyanide 

For Red or Black Scale, reduce one quarter. 

For details of fumigation processes for scale insects on citrus trees, 
apply for publications to the University Experiment Station and ta 
Horticultural Commissioners in citrus fruit growing counties. 



CHAPTER XL 

DISEASES OF TREES AND VINES 

A few suggestions concerning pathological conditions which arise 
in trees and vines and prescription of treatment and remedies may be 
helpful : First, diseases demonstrated to be caused by fungi and bac- 
teria ; second, abnormal conditions, of which the causes are not yet clear. 

Powdery Mildews. — Fungi which bring upon the leaf surface the 
appearance of a whitish powder and afterwards cause the leaf to curl 
and dry without producing marked swelling, perforation or discolora- 
tion, can be checked by the use of sulphur. The chief of these is the 
mildew of the grape, the mildew of the apple, appearing chiefly on 
the young growth, etc. The way to use sulphur for vine mildew is to 
freely apply finely ground or sublimed sulphur on the young foliage at 
the first sign of the trouble, or before it appears in regions where it 
may always be expected, either by hand or with suitable machinery 
which is fully discussed in Bulletin 186 of the California Experiment 
Station. Apple mildew is treated by spraying with iron sulphide added 
to the poison used for the codlin moth, as described in the preceding 
chapter. 

Leaf-Spotting, Puncturing or Deforming Fungi. — These classes 
are usually distinguishable by the results they produce. The mildew 
of the peach produces dense, whitish patches on the leaves and grow- 
ing fruit; the curl-leaf fungus of the peach produces swellings and 
contortions of the leaf; the scab of the apple and pear produces first 
a smoky appearance on the leaf and afterwards causes black scabby 
patches on the fruit and on the young twigs ; the slot-hole fungus of 
the apricot, plum, cherry, and almond cuts roundish holes in the leaves 
as though a shotgun had been discharged through the foliage, and 
then, in the case of the apricot, produces roundish, dark red pustules 
on the fruit ; the brown rot which attacks both twigs and fruit of apri- 
cots, prune, blackberry, etc., produced eruptions on plums and peaches ; 
the rust fungi of the under sides of the leaves, first of a yellowish or 
orange color, changing to dark brown or black, and causing the leaf 
to fall. These fungi are only slightly, if at all, checked by the dry 
sulphur treatment, and are best subdued by the use of copper solutions : 

The Bordeaux Mixture. — Lime, four pounds; bluestone (sulphate of copper), 
four pounds ; water, forty gallons. Use part of the water to slake the lime and 
dissolve the bluestone, which should be done in separate vessels. The bluestone 
should not be put in a metal vessel. If put into a bag and suspended near the 
surface of the water, it will dissolve more readily, or hot water may be used 
in making the solution. Both should be cold when mixed, and the resultant 
mixture will be a beautiful blue wash. If mixed hot, a black compound (copper 
oxide) is produced, which reduces the value of the wash. After thorough 
mixing of the solution, water should be added to bring the bulk up to forty 
gallons. 

488 



THE BORDEAUX MIXTURE 489 

This is safe to use on foliage. It may be used much stronger when 
trees are dormant — as strong as ten pounds of lime and ten pounds of 
bluestone to forty gallons of water to kill spores of fungi on the bark, 
but the chief advantage of the stronger mixture is not directly in spore- 
killing but in the longer resistance to removal by rains. This winter 
treatment is a successful preventive of curl-leaf on the peach, shot-hole 
on the apricot, scab on the apple and pear, rust on the prune, etc. In 
the case of the peach blight, which is an invasion of the young bark 
by the shot-hole fungus, an autumn spraying is imperative to protect 
the dormant twigs.* When the fungus survives winter treatment or 
when it attacks the fruit, as in case of the apricot particularly, or the 
leaf in the peach, there should follow the weaker Bordeaux in the 
spring or summer, as early as indications of the diseases may appear. 
In spraying for apple and pear scab, the addition of five pounds of 
lead arsenate to each one hundred gallons of the Bordeaux Mixture 
makes the application answer also for the codlin moth, as described 
in the preceding chapter. 

When it is desirable to use a fungicide on fruit near the picking 
season, or on ornamental plants, which would be disfigured with the 
lime wash, the ammonical copper carbonate may be submitted for the 
Bordeaux Mixture, viz.: Copper carbonate, four ounces; ammonia, 
forty ounces ; water forty gallons. 

The usual way of making this wash is to dissolve copper carbonate 
in ammonia, and then dilute. If the carbonate is not fully dissolved 
before the water is added, it can not be further dissolved, and not 
only is the carbonate wasted, but the fluid will not be up to standard 
strength. It is well, therefore, to give the ammonia ample time to act, 
say over night, before adding the water. 

The lime, salt and sulphur mixture, as already prescribed for scale 
insects in the preceding chapter, is an active fungicide for winter use. 
It is sometimes a satisfactory curl-leaf preventive in the interior valleys 
especially. 

Toadstool Destruction. — Trees are often destroyed through in- 
vasion by toadstool fungi from the decaying roots or wood with which 
their roots come in contact. The injury is often not detected until the 
tree is ruined and it is too late for treatment. If only part is affected, 
the disease may sometimes be arrested by cutting away the diseased 
parts and disinfection of the exposed tissue with Bordeaux Mixture. 
Stone fruits are most susceptible to this trouble, the cherry being least 
affected. Young apples are sometimes attacked, but mature trees resist 
it. Pears and figs are also largely resistant. 

Moss, Lichens, etc., on the Bark, — It has been clearly shown by 
investigation at the University Experiment Station that the growth of 
moss, etc., upon the bark of fruit trees is a decided injury. All trees 
should be assisted to maintain clean, healthy bark. This is accomplished 
by the use of the lime, salt and sulphur mixture already prescribed for 
scale insects. It can also be done by winter spraying with caustic soda 
or potash, one pound to six gallons of water. 

'Consult Bulletin 191 of the University Experiment Station on "California Peach Blight." 



490 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

Blights and Decays. — There are several blights which are trace- 
able to bacteria, parasitic growths which are not discernible as are the 
fungi, and not usually amenable to spray treatment, because they exist 
wholly within the tissues of the plant and are not reached by applica- 
tions. The blights of the pear, the black heart of the apricot, the olive 
tuberculosis, etc., are instances. Cutting back to healthy wood (with 
tools dipped after each cut in corrosive sublimate, one part to one 
thousand parts of water), and burning all removed parts, is the best 
treatment which can at present be prescribed. 

The walnut blight, demonstrated by Newton B. Pierce, of Santa 
Ana, to be caused by a bacterium, has so far resisted treatment, though 
there seems to be promise of good results from spraying in February 
or March, before growth begins, with the lime-sulphur wash. This 
serves also for the reduction of walnut aphis, which is sometimes very 
injurious to the tree and the crop.* The disease also affects the leaves 
and young wood. The recourse seems walnut ; generally worst at 
the blossom end and usually first seen there early in the season ; later 
the spots run together and encompass considerable areas of the surface. 
As the disease progresses the nut is transformed into a hateful black 
mass and is utterly destroyed. The disease also affects the leaves and 
young wood, but does not attack the old wood and the roots as the 
pear blight does. It is therefore more easily controlled. The recourse 
seems to be toward resistant varieties, as stated in the chapter on the 
walnut. 

DISEASES NOT TRACEABLE TO PARASITIC GROWTHS 

There are a number of prominent troubles which are not traceable 
to parasitic invasion of any kind, and yet may be in some cases pro- 
moted by bacterial growth invited by preceding conditions. 

Sour Sap. — There is a fermentation of the sap, quite noticeable 
by its odor, which may be found in all parts of the tree, from the root 
to the topmost twigs ; sometimes in one part and not in another. Sour 
sap in the root is generally due to standing water in the soil, and the 
remedy is drainage. Trees thus affected make an effort to grow and then 
the young growth shrivels. Severe cutting back of the top to reduce 
evaporation until the roots can restore their feeding fibers is the only 
treatment of the tree, and its success depends upon the extent of the 
root injury. Sour sap may also be caused in the branches by the occur- 
rence of frost after the sap flow has actually started. Cutting back the 
diseased parts, as soon as discovered, to sound wood, is the proper 
treatment. 

Die-Back. — Dying back of twigs or branches may occur without 
parasitic invasion through root-weakness or partial failure. It may 
be due to standing water or to lack of soil moisture, either of which 
will destroy the root-hairs and bring the tree into distress. The treat- 
ment is cutting back to sound wood and correcting the soil conditions, 
either by irrigation or drainage, as one or the other may be needed to 
advance vigorous growth in the tree. 

*See Pacific Rural Press, March 7, 1914. 



GUMMOSIS AND ROOT KNOTS 491 

Gummosis. — This is a convenient term to designate the gumming 
which is seen on many kinds of trees. As has been said of die-back, 
gumming may result from excess of water or of drouth in the soil. 
Gumming is. therefore, not always to be considered in itself a disease, 
but rather an indication of conditions unfavorable to the thrifty growth 
of the tree. It has been usually found by investigation that trees in 
perfect condition of health, with the moisture just enough and not 
excessive, are not troubled with gumming ; but there are cases in which 
this statement does not wholly apply. Prof. H. S. Fawcett has dem- 
onstrated that in some cases it is communicable because of a fungus 
cause. Full accounts of this may be expected in University publica- 
tions. 

When there is an outbreak of gum where it can be treated it is 
desirable to cleanly remove all the unhealthy bark — cutting clean to 
sound bark and covering the wound with paint or wax to exclude the 
air. Prof. Fawcett gives these detailed suggestions : 

The treatment for the gummosis caused by fungi is still somewhat in the 
experimental stage. All that can be said at present is that in several lemon 
groves where the Bordeaux paste was used over a year ago the results appear 
very promising. 

Before applying the paste on lemon trees the bark that is dead to the wood 
should be removed to allow the Bordeaux to get in to kill out the infection. 
In case the outer bark is infected over a large area and the inner or cambium 
is still alive, the outer layer may be scraped off with a curved sharp tool made 
on purpose for this work, leaving the cambium covered by inner bark still 
attached. In this way the infection is killed and a new bark is built up under 
the Bordeaux. One must expect the gum to run out freely for several weeks 
or months after treatment. One should watch for the formation of new, healthy 
tissue, rather than the amount of gum that may run out after treatment. The 
gum that has formed under the bark beyond where any fungus has gone will 
continue to drain out. The gum itself does not as a rule have any infectious 
principle in it. The fungus is in the diseased bark at the junction of the live 
and dead tissue. The fungus does not manufacture the gum, but causes the tree 
to produce it from its own products. 

The formula for the Bordeaux paste is as follows: 

One pound of bluestone dissolved in 1 gallon of water in a wooden or earthen 
vessel by hanging it in the top in a sack. Two pounds of unslaked lime, slaked 
in about one-half gallon of water. Stir together when cool, making a light blue 
mixture about the consistency of whitewash. Apply with a brush. This may 
also be applied to healthy bark as a preventive against new infections. 

Root Knots. — These are excrescences upon the roots or at the 
root crown of various trees and of grape-vines, and they have been 
a serious trouble in this State for a good many years. Some of the 
knots have been studied by experts in plant pathology and the cause 
of the trouble demonstrated to be a fungus and the di.sease infectious. 
A satisfactory treatment has, however, been discovered. If the knot 
has not increased in size sufficiently to seriously interfere with the 
growth of the tree it can be smoothly removed, the wound treated with 
the Bordeaux Mixture, and the knot will not reappear at the same 
place. Success has also been had with boring a hole into the knot and 
filling the hole with'bluestone solution, but some trees have been killed 
in this way. Bluestone can be used with least danger when the tree 
is dormant. 



492 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

As for treatment, however, it seems to be clear that if the trees are 
not too large, the knots can be removed with a chisel and the wound 
painted with the Bordeaux Mixture to the advantage of the tree; but 
if the trees are old and the knots so large that their removal would 
almost girdle the tree, it is a question whether it is not better, on the 
whole, to take out the trees and plant new ones. It really depends upon 
the condition of the trees whether it is worth while to remove the knots 
or not. If the tree has the start of the knot, it will be helped by re- 
moval ; if the knot has the start of the tree so that it is unthrifty, there 
is small chance of reinvigorating the knots. This is apparently true, 
both with young and old trees. Old trees are sometimes badly knotted 
and still productive and profitable. 



CHAPTER XLI 
SUPPRESSION OF INJURIOUS ANIMALS AND BIRDS 

The beasts of the field and the fowls of the air are sometimes such 
grievous trespassers upon the fruit plantation that protection has to 
be sought against them. The animals which figure in this evil work 
are mainly species of rodcntia, some of them burrowers; as, for ex- 
ample, the ground-squirrel and gopher ; others, surface dwellers, like 
the hare or jackass rabbit. Occasionally there is injury done by deer in 
the orchard and vineyard, and coons in the melon patch, but these 
larger animals may usually be left to the hunters and the dogs. 



RABBITS 

Though there are three species prevalent, none are burrowers. 
This fact has led to united efforts at their suppression by driving them, 
with mounted horsemen, from a wide stretch of country into a narrow, 
fenced inclosure, where they are killed with clubs. During the last 
few years tens of thousands have been killed in this w^ay, and com- 
paratively few are now found in the localities where the method has 
been adopted. Still, however, there are plenty at large to vex the fruit 
planter, and he must protect himself against them. 

Rabbit Fences. — The surest protection against rabbits is a fence 
which prevents their entrance, and many miles of such fence have been 
built in this State. Several styles prevail. The ordinary board fence, 
with the boards running horizontally, is made rabbit-proof by placing 
the lower boards close together, with openings of but about two inches 




A rabbit-proof fence in successful use in the San Joaquin Valley 



between them. A barbed wire, with barbs about two and one-half 
inches apart, can be used to advantage by running it along at or a little 
below the surface of the ground to prevent scratching under. 

The cost of board fences has led to the use of barbed wire and wire 
netting, or of perpendicular slats interwoven with wire. Such ma- 
terials are sold in large (juantities. A very effective combination of 
barbed wire and netting, which is used in the upper San Joaquin Val- 
ley, is described as follows : 
493 



494 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

The tall posts are regular split redwood posts. The intermediate small ones 
are made by sawing in two the regular posts and splitting them into eight small 
posts, or rather, large stakes. The netting is of galvanized wire. No. 19 gauge, 
and one and one-half inch mesh. This netting is stapled to the posts and stakes 
on the inside, or toward the held. This is of prime importance, as it will not 
serve the purpose if it is placed on the outside. The bottom of the netting is to 
come down to the ground, and the ground must be left hard, and not plowed to 
prevent burrowing, or scratching the dirt from underneath, which can be easily 
done if the dirt is softened up. It is not at all necessary to set the netting 
below the ground. In the sketch are shown three barbed wires, with barbs two 
and a half inches apart. These wires must be placed on the outside of the 
posts. This position is also a prime necessity. The lower wire is stretched 
just clear of the surface of the ground. The middle wire is one inch higher 
than the top of the netting, and the top wire, which is intended only as against 
cattle, is at a height suitable for the purpose. The rabbit-proof portion is 
comprised in the netting and the two lower wires. Hence, if cattle are not 
feared, and rabbits are the only foe, the top wire can be dispensed with, and the 
posts can be all short with a greater proportion of stakes, having only enough 
stout posts to stand the strain of the wires. The theory- of this construction is 
that a rabbit can only pass the fence over the top or under the bottom of the 
netting, and this is effectually prevented by the barbed wires, which tear the 
animal if it attempts either to leap or climb over or to scratch under. 

Smears Distasteful to Rabbits. — \Miere the expense of a fence 
can not be assumed, measurable protection can be had by sprinkling 
the leaves or smearing the stems of plants with substances distasteful 
to the animals, which are quite dainty in this respect. Commercial 
aloes, one pound to four gallons of water, both sprinkled on leaves and 
painted on the bark, gives a bitter taste, which repels rabbits. A tea 
made of steeping quassia chips is said to produce the same effect. 
Rancid grease, liquid manure, putrescent flesh or blood, have been 
approved as a daub for tree trunks, but the efficacy is only of limited 
duration. 

Rabbit Poison. — Pieces of watermelon rind, cantaloupe, or other 
veo-etable of which they are very fond, may be poisoned with strych- 
nine and then scattered around the orchard. Rabbits will not touch 
the bark as long as they can find this bait, and one meal is effective, 
for the rabbit never gets far away from it. The same results can be 
obtained by the following mixture : To one hundred pounds of wheat 
take nine gallons of water and one pound of phosphorus, one pound 
of sugar, and one ounce of oil of rhodium. Heat the water to boiling 
point and let it stand all night. Next morning stir in flour sufiicient to 
make a sort of paste. The rabbits eat it with avidity if scattered about. 

Another preparation is half a teaspoonful of powdered strychnine, 
two teaspoonfuls of fine salt, and four of granulated sugar. Put all in 
a tin box and shake well. Pour in small heaps on a board. It hardens 
into a solid mass. They lick it for the salt, and the sugar disguises the 
poison, which kills great numbers. 



GROUXD-SOUIRRELS 

Ground-squirrels are poisoned by the use of the poisoned wheats 
which are sold in the markets, or by use of bisulphide of carbon, or 
"smokers," which are arranged to force smoke or poisonous vapors 



GROUND SQUIRRELS AND GOPHERS 495 

into the holes. A small quantity of bisulphide of carbon poured into 
the hole, and the hole closed with dirt, is probably the most effective 
squirrel killer, when the ground is wet, so that the vapor is held in the 
burrow. Smokers are also most effective when the soil is moist. When 
the ground is dry, poison is the best means of reducing squirrels. The 
following is an exceedingly effective preparation, of which a few grains 
should be placed in or near each hole : 

Take strjchnine, one ounce ; cyanide of potassium, one and one-half ounces ; 
eggs, one dozen; honey, one pint; vinegar, one and one-half pints; wheat or 
barley, thirty pounds. Dissolve strychnine in the vinegar; and you will have to 
pulverize it in the vinegar, or it will gather into a lump. See that it is all dis- 
solved. Dissolve the cyanide of potassium in a little water. Beat the eggs. Mix 
all the ingredients together thoroughly before adding to the barley. Let it stand 
twenty-four hours, mixing often. Spread to dry before using, as it will mold if 
put away wet. 

What is known as the "government formula," being used by various 
departments of the United States government in the effort to eradicate 
ground squirrels from California, is as follows : 

Str}'chnine (pulverized alkaloid), 3 ounces. 

Starch, ^ pint. 

Barley, 13 gallons. 

Water, 3 pints. 

The water is placed over a fire and heated to boiling; the starch 
is dissolved in a half-pint of cold water and added to the boiling water, 
which is stirred carefully to insure uniform consistence. When the 
starch has become clear, remove it from the fire and add the strych- 
nine. Mix this poisoned paste with the barley until every kernel is 
coated. 

To keep squirrels from gnawing fruit trees, or climbing and getting 
the fruit, tying a newspaper around the trunk of the tree, letting the 
paper extend out four inches at the upper edges, is said to be effective 
by some growers, though this is denied by others. The rattle of the 
paper when the squirrels attempt to get over it will frighten them. 



GOPHERS 

Gophers can often be destroyed by the use of poisoned wheat, 
especially prepared with a little oil of rhodium, which seems to be very 
attractive to all rodents. Pieces of fruits or vegetable, or the succulent 
stems of alfalfa, into which a few grains of strychnine have been in- 
serted by making a cut with a knife-blade and then squeezing it together 
again, are also handy conveyors of death to gophers. There are two 
ways to put poisoned materials into a gopher runway. One is to look 
for fresh open holes and put in the poison as far as possible with a 
long-handled spoon ; another is to take a round, pointed stick and shove 
it into the ground near the gopher mounds until it strikes their run- 
way, then drop in the poisoned bait. Close up the hole with some grass ; 
level down mounds, so that if the poison does not kill all the gophers, 
you will soon discove^ their new mounds. If there are many mounds, 
put the poison in a number of places. 



496 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Bisulphide of carbon is also successfully used in killing gophers, 
while the ground is wet, using an injector which is furnished with the 
poison to force the vapor through the long burrows. 

Trapping Gophers. — Some are very successful in using gopher 
traps, of which there are several styles sold. Gophers come to the sur- 
face in the night, and generally close their holes soon after daybreak. 
They frequently emerge again about noon, and a third time late in the 
afternoon. It is best to set the trap in an open hole ; still the holes may 
be opened if the dirt is still fresh, with a good prospect of the gopher's 
return. Therefore, the trapper may make his rounds three times a day, 
as above indicated. Care should be exercised in preparing the hole for 
the insertion of the trap, a straight hole for a distance of at least ten 
inches, with no lateral branches, otherwise the gopher in pushing out 
the dirt will likely enough thrust the trap to one side, cover it up, or 
spring it without being exposed to its grasp. The trapper should be 
supplied with at least two varieties of traps — one for the larger gophers, 
and the other for the smaller ones. The common iron gopher trap, 
which springs downward, is excellent for the former, and the small 
wire trap, which springs upward, is generally successful with the latter. 
The size of the hole is indicative of the size of the gopher. Either trap 
should be inserted nearly its full length into the hole, pressed down 
firmly, and a little dirt piled at the outer end to prevent its being easily 
pushed out. After the trap is set, it is well to cover the opening with 
some grass or weeds. Sometimes the holes require a little enlarging, 
but care should be taken to make the fit as close as possible, that the 
body of the gopher may be kept near the center, and thus more exposed 
to the prongs of the trap. In the fourth place, the trapper should have 
a small spade and a little gouge-shaped instrument for trimming the 
hole. 

Gopher Pitfalls. — If gophers are abundant, large numbers can 
be captured in this way : Dig a trench around the orchard or vineyard 
about the width of a spade and from fourteen to sixteen inches deep. 
In the bottom of the ditches, about a hundred feet apart, sink five- 
gallon oil cans, leaving the tops level with the ditch bottom. The 
gophers migrate in the night, and in attempting to come into the in- 
closure will fall into the ditch and then run along the bottom until they 
drop into the cans. Of course the ditch must not be wider than the 
cans. As many as fifteen live gophers have been found in one can. 
The cats soon learn to help themselves out of the cans. The ditch must 
be kept clean, and if any roads cross the tract, set up a board at night, 
to compel the gophers to tumble in the ditch. This ditch should be con- 
structed about the first of June, when the oustide feed begins to dry 
up, and the pests rush for the cultivated ground. With such protection 
from the outside, and the use of poison and traps inside, the trees and 
vines can be saved. 

DESTRUCTIVE BIRDS 

Fruit growers generally appreciate the value of insectivorous birds, 
but there are feathered pests which do such ruinous work in disbudding 
the trees in spring-time, and in destroying ripe fruit that protective 



DESTRUCTIVE BIRDS 497 

measures have to be adopted ag^ainst them. The so-called "California 
linnet," which is not a linnet, but a finch {Carpodacus frontalis), a per- 
sistent destroyer of buds, and the English sparrow, infamous the world 
over, are probably the most grievous pests, though there are other de- 
structive birds, including the beautiful California quail, which is pro- 
tected by law, and yet must be destroyed in some parts of the State or 
the grape crop must be abandoned. 

For the killing of the smaller birds poison is usually employed, and 
it is the best administered in water. Poisoned water made of one-eighth 
ounce of strychnine to three gallons of water and placed in shallow tin 
pans in the trees, has been widely approved. Cutting oranges in halves, 
spreading strychnine over the cut surface and empaling the half oranges 
on twigs high up in the apricot trees, has destroyed hundreds of linnets. 
Some advocate the use of the shotgun, No. 30 caliber, with a small 
charge of good powder and No. 10 shot. As many as five hundred 
linnets have been killed in two days. The advantage of this plan is 
that one kills linnets and not other birds, while poison kills both friends 
and foes. 



CHAPTER XLII 
PROTECTION FROM WIND AND FROSTS 

Though the cHmate of CaHfornia renders unnecessary the protection 
against rigorous weather which fruit growers in some other parts of 
the world have to provide, there is often advantage in securing shelter 
from winds and protection from late frosts. 

The general subject of forest planting in California, and the effect 
of preservation and extension of our forest area upon our fruit indus- 
tries, has received the attention of our best-informed growers. The 
planting of shelter belts at intervals across our broad valleys at right 
angles to the courses of prevailing or most violent winds, has also been 
urged with great force. These greater enterprises and projects are 
beyond the scope of this treatise. It is rather concerning the planting 
of trees to shelter individual possessions that a few suggestions will 
be offered. 

It has been already remarked that on the immediate coast the suc- 
cessful growth of fruit will sometimes be wholly dependent upon proper 
shelter from prevailing winds, and in regions farther from the ocean 
the topography may induce strong currents of air which will illy affect 
trees and vines. In all such places the fruit grower should plant wind- 
breaks, and will find himself well repaid for the ground they occupy, 
by the successful production on the protected area. 

In the interior valleys there is also need of shelter from occasional 
high winds which may visit the orchards either in summer or winter, 
and prove destructive both to trees and fruit. In some cases long lines 
of the sheltering trees have been cut down because they affected the 
fruiting of orchard trees planted too near them, and afterwards the 
losses through lack of protection were far greater than would have 
been incurred by retaining them. 

What Kind of Trees to Plant. — This is a question concerning 
which there is much to be learned. Data is accumulating in the growth 
of trees planted to test their suitability, and the future planter will have 
more certain ground to proceed upon than is now available. Mention 
will be made, however, of a few trees, which are now most widely 
grown. 

The most widely planted shelter tree is the Eucalyptus globulus, 
or Australian blue gum. It is a rapid grower and voracious feeder, 
and wonderful for root extension, for which it has been roundly abused. 
It is doubtful, however, whether we have a better tree for high growth, 
and consequent large area over which its shelter will be felt. It is 
deficient in undergrowth, and if a close screen is desired, the planting 
of eucalyptus and Monterey cypress ( Cupressus macrocarpa) is a com- 
mon practice. The latter also attains a good height, but its broad, thick 
base fills the gaps between the bare stems of the gum trees. Another 
tree which has often been planted with the blue gum, to supply a thick, 

498 



TREES FOR WIXD BREAKS 499 

low growth, is the pepper tree (Scliinns mollc). It is also grown in 
rows by itself. It makes a dense head, grows rapidly, and tlourishes 
without much care. Trees planted eighteen feet apart will soon come 
together and make a dense wall of very beautiful, bright, light-green 
foliage. The pepper is not only a good windbreak, but also an excel- 
lent dust-catcher. Unlike most trees which are used for this purpose, 
it does not become laden with dust. The leaves are smooth and glossy, 
and therefore repel the dust particles, which, stopped in their tlight by 
the dense foliage of the tree, instead of clinging to it drop to the 
ground. The growth of the pepper tree near the coast is much slower 
than that of the Monterey cypress. The eucalyptus and the cypress 
for the coast, and the eucalyptus and pepper for the interior valleys, 
make, probably, as perfect a wall of foliage all the year round as can 
be had. The blue gum is, however, somewhat subject to frost killing, 
especially when young, and in very frosty places is objected to on that 
account. A number of other species of eucalyptus are now being 
planted, and are being found more hardy than the blue gimi. The 
rostrata, rudis, tcrcticornis, polyaiithcma, amygdalina, viminalis and 
others are of this character. 

The Monterey pine {Finns insignis) is a rapid, high-growing tree, 
and, though a native of the coast, has proved itself well adapted to the 
interior valleys of the central portion of the State. Its foliage is dense 
for a pine, and its shelter, therefore, the more complete. A native white 
cedar {Liboccdnis dccurrens) has also been employed as a shelter tree 
in the San Joaquin Valley, and is commended as a rapid grower in the 
interior as on the coast. Its ability to stand drouth, heat and frost is 
said to exceed that of any of the conifers of the seacoast. It stands 
well in the most exposed situations, as its roots run very deep into the 
earth and it is claimed that it does not sap the fertility from the soil 
around its base, as with the blue gum. It is also said to be less subject 
to frost injury than the Monterey cypress and pine. 

All the foregoing are evergreen trees, and therefore afTord protec- 
tion summer and winter alike. Of deciduous trees there are many 
which may be well employed. The California black walnut makes a 
very satisfactory growth both in the interior and upon the coast, and 
is largely used for roadside planting. The California broad-leaved 
maple {Acer macro phylla) is very beautiful, rapid in growth, and dense 
in foliage, and the same is true of the box elder {Acer negrundo), but 
probably both trees are especially suited to the coast regions. Of the 
poplars, the Carolina {Popnlus monilifera) is best, because of its 
breadth, density of foliage, and comparative freedom from suckering. 
The locust (Robinia pscudacacia) is used to some extent, but its suck- 
ering is very objectionable. 

Quite a number of the larger-growing deciduous fruit trees are used 
to some extent along the exterior lines of orchards for the protection 
of the inclosure. The fig, the walnut, the chestnut, seedling almonds, 
and apricots are especially commended for such use. 

Growing Trees from Seed, — Much that has been said in Chapter 
VIII will be suggestive to one who desires to grow his own shelter 
trees frorii seed. Trees from small seeds are best grown in boxes, and 



500 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

in many cases, as with eucalyptus and cypress especially, do best when 
put in permanent place when quite small. Whether put at once in 
permanent place, or in nursery, the land should be deeply worked and 
the young plant well planted and cared for. 

Cultivation of Shelter Trees. — If one desires rapid growth of 
shelter trees, they should be cultivated the first few years as thoroughly 
as an orchard. Much disappointment results from allowing roadside 
trees to shift for themselves in a hard, dry soil. With such treatment 
the root extension is naturally most rapid into cultivated orchard 
ground, which is undesirable. Cultivate and enrich the roadside, and 
the tree will grow chiefly on the waste land. At the same time the 
roadside will be prevented from producing vast quantities of weed seed, 
to be blown over the fence, and the place will have a name for neatness, 
which is too rare even in California. 

PROTECTION FROM FROSTS 

Much attention has been given during recent years to the protection 
of citrus fruits as they approach maturity, and of deciduous fruits as 
they are starting on their growth, from occasional fall of the mercury 
a few degrees below the freezing point. It has been shown by ample 
experience that fruits may escape injury by a temperature of 28 degrees 
if the ground surface is wet and the exposure be but of short duration. 
Fruit has, therefore, been saved by irrigation, while that over dry 
ground has been nipped by the same temperature. About the same re- 
sult has been secured by checking radiation of heat by covering the or- 
chard or vineyard with a cloud of smoke. Both these protective meas- 
ures fail when the temperature falls a few degrees below 28 degrees or 
when such freezing temperature is continued for several hours. 

During recent years much progress has been made in preventing 
frost by numerous small fires distributed among the trees to be pro- 
tected and many devices to secure such distributed heat easily and 
economically are being enterprisingly promoted by inventors and manu- 
facturers. The extreme low temperatures of January, 1913, gave full 
opportunities for testing orchard heating appliances and very striking 
success was had with them. Comparative tests and observations have 
been made by the experts of the University Experiment Station, but 
conclusions are not available at this date. They must be looked for in 
Experiment Station bulletins, in the publications of the U. S. Weather 
Bureau and in the horticultural journals. The subject is clearly seen 
to be too complex to admit of a brief generalization except to say that, 
when orchard heating is thoroughly and economically done, it is a most 
profitable investment and should be studied by all growers. 

SUSCEPTIBILITY OF DECIDUOUS FRUITS 

No systematic observations of danger points in deciduous fruits 
have been made in this State, but work elsewhere is suggestive. Pro- 
fessor W. L. Howard, of the Missouri Experiment Station, after arti- 



OBSERVATIONS ON FROST INJURIES 501 

ficially frcczinc^ thousands of peach buds, summarized the critical tem- 
peratures as follows : 

"Fully dormant peach buds can stand 8 or 9° below zero, F. When they 
are appreciably swollen, zero is the danger point. When the buds are showing 
pink, they can stand 15° above zero. When the buds are almost open, 25° is 
the danger point. When they are newly opened, about 26° would be the point 
of danger. When the petals are beginning to fall, 28° above zero is dangerous. 
When the petals are off they can stand 30° above zero. When the 'shucks' 
(caly.x lobes) are beginning to fall off, 32° is the danger point." Presumably 
these limits would apply also to the apricot and almond. 

Apple buds, when the petals begin to show, can stand from 10 to 12 degrees 
of freezing. When the petals are well emerged, but have not opened, they can 
stand from 4 to 6 degrees of freezing, but when open, but not yet fertilized, 
there would be great danger at two or three degrees below the freezing point. 
When the flowers have been fertilized, the petals dropped, and the young fruit 
increasing in size, the slender stems which support the apples are unable to 
resist a temperature lower than the freezing point. The apples seem to be 
more hardy than their stems, but if the latter are injured of course the fruit 
also suffers. Similar behavior may be expected from the pear, cherry and plum. 

Orchard Frost Studies. — In connection with the foregoing it is 
interesting to note conclusions which Prof. Fabian Garcia draws from 
several years' observation of frost effects in the orchard of the New 
Mexico Experiment Station and of which full details are given in 
Bulletin 89 of that station, under date of February, 1914: 

The data recorded at the Station show that the fruit-buds, particularly those 
of the peach, at their different stages of development are somewhat more resist- 
ant to cold than has been reported by observers from others parts of the United 
States. The data further show that the degree of resistibility to frost varies 
with different stages of growth. 

The peach is least resistant when it is about the size of a pea, when the 
calices are falling off. Contrary to the findings of other observers, the bloom 
is not the most tender stage of growth. In other words, the data indicate that 
the newly set peach is more delicate than the newly opened blossom. 

In the majority of cases a temperature of 26 degrees, lasting only a short 
time, did little or no injury to the opening bud, newly opened blossom or newly 
set fruit of the peach, native plum, pear and apple; while one-half a degree 
below this, or 25^ degrees, although lasting only a few minutes, killed a large 
percentage of the opening buds, newly set blossoms and young fruits of the 
peach, in a number of cases. In other words, 26 degrees was the danger point, 
and any temperature below this is liable to do more or less injury; depending 
on how low it gets and how long it remains at that temperature. In some cases, 
however, a temperature of 24 degrees lasting only a short time left about 25% 
of the blooms and 9% of the newly set fruits uninjured. 

Three important factors that influence the amount of damage done by spring 
frosts are: the degree of killing temperature, the time of day at which it occurs, 
and the length of time the temperature remains below the danger point. The 
longer the time the killing temperature remains and the nearer it is to sunrise, 
the greater the amount of damage that should be expected. 

.As a rule, the killing temperature recorded in these experiments occurred 
in the morning, from one to two hours before sunrise. Whenever the killing 
temperature occurred this late in the morning, and remained below the danger 
point until sunrise, the injury was great. On the other hand, if the minimum 
occurred at midnight, or a little later, and then gradually rose to the freezing 
nnint. so tint the frn/cn l)U(ls. lilonni'^ and fruits had time to thaw out slowly 
before sunrise, the injury was insignificant. This was the case April 5. 1910, 
when at 2:15 A. M. the temperature was 24^ degrees. By 5:30 it had risen to 
."^1 degrees, and the injurv done to the Alexander peaches — which were in full 
bloom — was estimated at 2^9o. 

As the young fruit develops it seems to get more tender, until it grows 
beyond a certain size, when it seems to get hardier again ; so that the later frosts 



502 CALIFORNIA FRUITS : HOW TO GROW THEM 

which come after the young fruits have made quite a growth are liable to do 
more injury than the same degree of cold in the earlier part of the season, when 
the fruits are less developed. At this stage of growth, 26^/2 to 27 degrees would 
probably be dangerous to peaches. The very late frost of 25 degrees on May 4, 
1912, killed practically all the peaches in the experimental orchard, while 24^ 
degrees on April 17, 1910, left about 30% of the Elbertas. 

On the whole, apples and pears seem to be more resistant than peaches and 
plums. This was strongly indicated in 1912, when practically all the peach crop 
was destroyed on May 4, by a temperature of 25 degrees ; while there was a 
very heavy crop of pt;ars and apples harvested the following fall. 

European and native plums seem to be slightly hardier than Japanese plums 
and apricots, which are the least resistant of all the fruits included in the test. 



DELAYING BLOOM BY WHITEWASH 

Another suggestion comes from Missouri. It is concerning delay- 
ing activity in deciduous trees by spraying with whitewash to reflect 
heat — the absorption of which by dark bark causes the activity of the 
tree to begin. Prof. J. C. Whitton of the Missouri Experiment Station 
says: 

Purple coloring matter on untreated peach trees often absorbs heat enough 
on a sunny cold day in winter to raise the temperature of the trees 25 degrees 
or more above the temperature of the atmospehere. Whitened trees remain at 
atmospheric temperature or usually a degree or so below. 

For ten consecutive years we whitewashed diagonal rows of peach trees 
across the Experiment Station orchard just before midwinter. In this section 
we had five general peach crops during that ten years on untreated trees ; on 
whitewashed trees of the same varieties we had eight crops. The five crops on 
untreated trees were not all full crops ; the eight crops on treated trees were all 
but two full crops. More than double the amount of fruit was secured in ten 
years on the whitewashed trees. The treated trees were anywhere from a few 
days up to ten days later in blooming. In years when normal weather prevailed 
until sudden warm spells brought the trees into bloom hurriedly, there was only 
a little difference in time of blooming, and under normal conditions there was a 
week or more difference in their blooming. This is less important, however, 
than the fact that the whitewashed trees began their first starting into slight 
growth on sunny days in late winter fully six weeks later than the naked trees. 



PART TEN: MISCELLANEOUS 



CHAPTER XLIII 
UTILIZING FRUIT WASTES 

Some progress has been recently attained in the securing of horti- 
cuhural by-products from various kinds of fruit wastes. There is a 
considerable product of cream of tartar from the pomace and lees of 
the wineries in central California. In southern California citric acid 
factories have to some extent used lemons rejected in packing, and 
some other by-products of citrus fruits have been secured in small 
quantities. \'inegar from wine and cider are, of course, made here as 
everywhere in fruit countries. 

There has arisen also a profitable export demand for fruit pits and 
apricot and peach pits, which formerly were burned, are now selling 
profitably — machinery for cheap extraction of the kernels have been 
contrived by California inventors. The kernels are bought by agents 
of European manufacturers of oils and essences. Apricot kernels are 
used by confectioners in place of almonds. 

Comparative value of fruits, and hay, grains, meals, etc. 
100 Pounds Fruit Equivalent to Pounds of 



FRESH FRUITS. ^ ^ - ^ "C ^ .- :S .-S - ? § ^ 

s: < o u K O :f ii- ■i- f^' 'Sl uo^s 

Apples 34 20 24 15 IS 17 16 18 16 13 9 13 

Oranges II 19 23 14 14 16 15 17 15 12 8 12 

Pears 40 23 30 17 18 20 19 20 19 15 11 IS 

Plums 50 30 36 22 24 25 24 26 24 20 14 20 

Prunes 46 27 33 20 22 23 22 24 22 18 13 18 

Apricots 40 23 29 17 18 20 19 20 19 15 11 15 

Nectarines 43 26 30 19 20 22 21 23 21 17 12 17 

Figs 50 30 n 23 24 26 25 21 25 20 14 20 

Grapes SO 30 37 23 24 26 25 27 25 20 14 20 

Watermelons 22 13 16 10 10 11 II 12 11 8 6 8 

Nutmeg Melons.. 19 11 13 8 9 9 9 10 9 7 5 7 

DRIED FRUITS. 

Dried prunes 175 104 125 78 82 88 84 92 84 67 48 68 

Dried apricots .. 194 115 138 86 90 97 93 102 93 74 53 76 

Dried peaches ... 190 113 135 85 88 95 91 100 91 12 51 74 

Dried figs 186 110 132 83 85 93 89 97 89 71 SO 72 

Raisins 216 128 153 97 100 108 103 111 103 82 59 84 



The disposition €f waste fruit by growers must, however, always 
lie chiefly in the line of feeding animals unless denatured alcohol enter- 
prises should arise to consume it at prices to pay something more than 
503 



504 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

cost of handling-. Refuse fresh fruits of all kinds, and especially refuse 
dried fruits have nutritive value which should not be lost. A statement 
of the value of various fruits as compared with various cattle foods 
has been prepared by Prof. M. C. Jaffa, of the University Experiment 
Station, in the adjacent table. 

A good average of the pitted fresh fruits is represented by prunes. 
Using the equivalents in the table above for computation, it appears 
that if wheat bran costs $15 per ton, fresh prunes would be worth as a 
substitute $3 per ton ; likewise, if cottonseed meal is selling for $21 per 
ton, the prune value would be about $2.75. At the market price of oat 
hay, the figures for fresh prunes should be nearly $3 per ton. 

The dried fruits naturally rank far above the fresh material as stock 
feed. Of the dried fruits represented in the table, raisins lead in food 
value ; containing one and one-fourth to one and one-half times the 
nutritive ingredients of alfalfa and oat hays, respectively ; 100 pounds 
of the fruit being practically equal to the same quantity of grain, but to 
only eighty-two and fifty-nine pounds respectively of rice bran and 
cottonseed meal. 

Dried apricots rank slightly lower than raisins, because they contain 
more water. Apricots are, however, of equal value as a feeding stuff 
with wheat bran and almond hulls about half as much as alfalfa hay, 
bran or middlings. 

Concerning the feeding of raisins to hogs, the following statements 
are made : "With raisins selling at 2^^ cents per pound they are much 
cheaper food for hogs than corn or barley. Raisins give the hog a 
hard, sweet meat and are much sought after by the butchers. Care 
must, however, be exercised in feeding raisins to hogs, as they are full 
of sugar, and consequently too rich when fed alone. They heat the 
animal up so that the hogs lose flesh and will kill the little pigs of a 
farrowing sow. For fall and winter feeding, pumpkins, citrons and 
alfalfa are the best feed to give the hogs in conjunction with the raisins, 
but in the spring a change is found very beneficial. 

Many people feeding raisins to hogs are not having the success 
they should because they overfeed their porkers. A pound of raisins 
a day is ample to start in with. After the system of the hog has become 
accustomed to the raisins the amount can be increased so that the last 
three weeks each hog should get about four pounds of raisins a day. 
The last ten days, when the finishing touches are being put on, the hogs 
should be allowed all they can get." 

Wine grapes rich in sugar have been cheaply dried on the ground 
and used to advantage for hog feed. One grower says that in 1908 
failing to get $6 per ton for his grapes, he dried them and fed them to 
hogs. Having more than the hogs required, grapes were fed to the 
horses : "The horses soon got a taste for them and seemed to thrive 
well on the new diet and in a short time became fat and sleek, while 
they were being worked as hard as ever, and we continued to feed them 
dried grapes and have kept it up for a whole year. The effect seems 
to have made the old horses five years younger, both in looks and in 
ability to work. The hogs fattened up so quick that we thought the 



VALUE OF FRUITS AS STOCK FEED 505 

pork would be soft and sloppy, but to our surprise, we never had better 
bacon and ham than was produced from these grape-fed porkers. It 
was not only solid, but sweet and tender." 

Prune-fed and raisin-fcd pork is indeed an accomplished fact in 
California. As to the acceptability of the fruit diet to the hog, what 
could be more pertinent and more fitting appendix to this treatise than 
this little tale? It is stated that Mr. Balaam, of Farmersville, used to 
have a pet pig that ran under the fig trees near the house. When the 
fruit began to drop, he ate figs and rested in the shade until he finally 
grew too fat to move about to gather the sweet morsels. By this time 
his owner became so much interested in the case as to carry him his 
figs regularly three times daily. Gradually he grew so fat that his eyes 
closed entirely, but still he ate figs in contentment and delight. 



PLATE ILLUSTRATIONS 

OPPOSITE 
PAGE NO. 

Plate I. California homes submerged in a sea of winter blossoms 3 

II. Apricot trees with and without summer cultivation 105 

III. Ground view of good job of fruit-thinning 121 

IV. Cement ditches and irrigation by check system 169 

V. Orchard irrigation by furrow system 185 

VI. A good start toward an apple orchard 201 

VII. 'Typical aspect of a bearing apricot orchard 217 

VIII. Young cherry orchard in good form 225 

IX. Bearing peach orchard in an irrigated district 257 

X. Development of strong-branching form in the French prune. . 265 

XI. Orchard of shipping plums in a foothill district 281 

XII. Shaping the grape clusters for shipping 289 

XIII. Profuse bearing of vine by long pruning 321 

XIV. Bearing of the young date palm in California 329 

XV. The Sevillano olive as grown, in Tehama County 345 

XVI. Olives popular in California 353 

XVII. Partial view of Riverside citrus district 385 

XVIII. Orange trees with sucker growth and good growth 393 

XIX. Bearing of young budded orange tree and orchard view with 

cover crop 409 

XX. The Mammoth Blackberry 417 

XXI. The Loganberry 449 

XXII. Strawberry patch with cane windbreak and almond trees in 

bloom 457 

XXIII. Cleft graft of walnut and method of supporting grafts 473 

XXIV. California sunshine evaporator with accessory buildings 481 



506 



INDEX 



Page 

Acorns, edible 40 

Alfalfa in orchard 131,439 

Alkaline Soils 34 

Alligator Pear 401 

Almond. The 424 

growing from seed 68 

hulling and bleaching 426 

pollination 428 

propagation 68, 425 

pruning 426 

situations and soils 425 

wild 40 

varieties 194, 429 

Animals, injurious 493 

Ants, killing 482 

Apple in California 195 

aphis, resistant 197 

aphis, woolly 473 

drying 454 

exposures for ' 196 

gathering 200 

irrigation 200 

localities for 1% 

mildew 488 

mission 42 

native crab 36 

planting distance 198 

picking and packing 202 

pollination 204 

propagation 197 

pruning 198 

scab or smut 488 

second crop 196 

seedlings, growing 66, 67 

shipping 203 

soils for 197 

storehouse for 201 

summer and fall 203 

table of varieties 209 

thinning 125, 200 

varieties, most popular 193 

when to pick 200 

winter 203 

worm 480 

varieties 193, 204 

Apricot 210 

climatic requirements 211 

diseases of 217 

distances for 213 

drying 454 

exposures for 211 

growing seedlings . . .* 68 

irrigation 216 

localities for 211 

mission 42 

507 



Page 
Apricot — continued 

old trees 210 

on almond root 213 

planting 213 

pruning 214 

shot-hole fungus 218 

stocks and soils for 212 

table of varieties 218 

thinning 125, 216 

varieties 193, 219 

Army Worms 466 

Atmospheric humidity 21 

Banana, The 393 

Barberry, native 39 

Bear berry 39 

Bergamot 392 

Berries and currants 404 

Berries, various wild 38 

Birds, poisoning 496 

Blackberry, The 405 

cultivation 406 

hybrids •. 417 

distances for 405 

irrigating 408 

longevity of 408 

propagation 405 

pruning 406, 410 

wild 38 

varieties 408 

Blasting for plartting 94 

Borers 104, 477, 480 

Bones, treatment of 143 

Bordeaux Mixture 488, 491 

Brush, cutting to kill 62 

Budding, common method 7i 

June 7Z 

over old trees 82 

spring 76 

Bud, cutting to a 123 

Buds, dormant 81 

Buffalo berry 39 

Cactus fruits 40 

Canned fruit product 445 

Canning industry 445 

Canker worms 467 

Caterpillars 467 

Chain for laying out 93 

Chamis.'il and chanarral 57 

Charcoal making 61 

Chcrimover 394 

Cherry 221 

delayed fruiting of 223 

distances for 225 

exposures for 224 

gum disease 228 



508 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Page 
Cherry — continued 

grafting the 227 

localities for 221 

moisture requirements 222 

old trees 221 

pests and diseases 228 

pruning the 225 

seedlings growing 67 

slug 468 

soils for the 222 

stocks for the 224 

table of varieties 230 

wild 37 

varieties 193, 229 

Chestnut, The 430 

seedlings 68 

wild 40 

Choco or Chayota 394 

Cipoletti Weir 183 

Citron, The 392 

Clearing land for fruit 57 

brushy 60 

cost of 58 

grading 63 

steam puller 59 

stump puller 60 

with powder 60 

time to cut to kill 62 

Climate, divisions of California.... 11 
of California, characteristics of.. 9, 18 

of California, why mild 10, 18 

foothill 15 

mountain 16 

coast 13 

valley 14 

value of 23 

Cloudiness, east and west 21 

Coast pests and diseases 14 

Codlin moth 480 

Composting 146 

Corner, to find true 90 

Cover crops 150 

Cranberries 412 

wild 39 

Crops between trees or vines 131 

Crystallizing fruit 446 

Cultivation 128 

adequate 129 

hillside 134 

methods of 132 

purposes of 128 

shallow, results of 130 

summer 135, 137 

to retain moisture 128 

without plowing 136 

Currants 412 

culture of 413 

regions for 413 

varieties grown 414 

wild 38 

Custard apple 394 

Cutworms 466 



Page 

Cuttings, fruit trees from 70 

Dates 319 

at the missions 319 

bearing age of 322 

bearing in Solano County 320 

blooming of 322, 323 

first fruit 320 

from seed 321 

from suckers 322 

propagation of 320 

requirements of 320 

transplanting 321 

Dewberry 409 

Diabroticas 482 

Die-back 490 

Dormant buds 82 

Drainage desirable 63, 189 

Dried fruits (see fruits) 447 

boxes for 453 

covering 450 

cutting sheds 451 

dipping 453 

drying floors 450 

grading and cleaning 451, 452 

packing 453 

product of 448 

sulphuring 451 

sweating 453 

trays for 450 

worm 482 

Elderberries 37 

Evaporated Fruits 460 

Evaporator, sunshine 450 

Fertilizers in California 140 

caution in use of 141, 148 

for trees and vines 141 

lime and gypsum 144 

methods of applying 149 

value of green 150 

when necessary 141 

sources of nitrogen 144 

sources of phosphoric acid 143 

sources of potash 143 

waste products for 147 

Feijoa Sellowiana 396 

Fig 324 

bearing age 329 

budding 326 

caprification 320 

drying 454 

foes of 331 

from cuttings 326 

from seeds 328 

grafting 327 

mission 42 

planting and pruning 328 

regions for 324 

size of old trees 324 

soils for 325 

varieties 194, 330, 331 

Filbert growing 431 

wild 40 



INDEX 



509 



Page 
. 500 
. 500 



Frosts, susceptibility of fruits. 

protection from 

Fruit cultivation 128 

Fruit Rardcns, early 46 

ruit industries, influence of 53 

ruit industries, outlook of 54 

ruit interest, extent of 52 

Fruit shipments 51 

Fruit thinning 125 

Fruit tree acreage 52, 448 

Fruit products, value of 53 

Fruits, crystallizing 446 

drying 447 

drying floors 450 

graders 451 

grafted, first in California 46 

locations for 12 

value as stock food 503 

Fruit shipments, eastern 50, 51 

Fruit trees, dwarf 46 

Fruits, commercial varieties 191 

Fruits, locations for 12 

Fruits, mission 42 

Fruits, native 36 

Fruits, Russian 45 

Fruit, soil ingredients of 142 

Goat nut. or jajoba 40 

Gooseberry. The 414 

culture of 414 

requirements of 414 

varieties 415 

wild 38 

Gophers, killing 495 

pitfall for 496 

trapping 496 

Grafting 76 

bark 84 

cleft 79 

old trees 83 

root 80 

side 79, 84 

time for 85 

top 83 

whip 80 

wax for 78 

waxed bands 78 

Graft, time to 85 

Grafts, planting out 80 

Granadilla 396 

Grape, area of 285 

budding 292 

conditions of ripening 19 

cutting grafts 296 

dibbles for planting 299 

diseases of 312 

distance 298 

from cuttings 289 

from layers 288 

from seed 288 

frost injuries ? 311 

grafting 292. 295 

insects 470, 474 



Page 
Grape — continued 

industry 285 

length of season 286 

mildew 488 

mission 42.44 

number per acre 298 

planting devices 298 

planting in rows 297 

products 285 

pruning 302, 31 1 

pruning, long 308 

pruning, short 285 

resistant 296 

rooting in nursery 292 

shipping 285, 286 

soils for 286 

stakes, twine, etc 302 

suckering 310 

sulphuring 488 

summer pruning 305, 310 

syruD 460 

topping 306 

trellising 309 

varieties 313 

wild 37 

wine, varieties of 318 

Grasshoppers, killing 471 

Growing season, long 23 

Guava, The 395 

Gummosis 491 

Gypsum, uses of 145 

Tlardpan, breaking up 94 

Heat, deficient on coast 13 

importance of 18 

summer, records of 19 

Heeling in young trees 99 

Hexagonal planting 91, 92 

Hillside, rows on 90 

use of triangle on 93 

Holes for trees 94, 95 

Huckleberries, wild 39 

Himiidity, atmospheric 21 

deficient 24 

east and west 22 

excessive 24 

Insects, injurious 465 

Insects, remedies 483 

Irrigation 153 

distributing manure by 149 

ditches 178 

drainage and 188 

evils of excessive 154 

flooding 163 

for citrus fruits 157 

for deciduous fruits 157 

flume building for 176 

hillside 173 

how much 155, 157 

implements for 165 

in early days 49 

in basins 168 

in checks 163 



510 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Page 
Irrigation — continued 

in furrows 170, 174 

leveling for 63 

locating contour lines 178 

manure with irrigation water.... 149 

manurial value of 150 

measurement of water 182, 184 

methods of 163 

nursery 72 

objections answered 154 

overhead 177 

relation to cultivation 160 

relation to rainfall 156 

relation to soil 158 

relation to tillage 159 

reservoirs, small 179 

running ditches for 178 

subirrigation 188 

suggestions for 187 

summer 162 

taken from ditches 181 

wells and pumps for 182 

wheels for 181 

when desirable 153, 161 

winter 161 

Jajoba 40 

Jujube of commerce 3% 

Jujube, native 40 

June buds IZ, 81 

Kai Annie 403 

Laying out land for fruit 87 

Leaf lice 469 

Legumes in orchard 151 

Lemon berry 40 

Lemon, The 354 

curing 388, 390 

picking 388 

planting and pruning 387 

propagation 70, 387 

situations and soils for 355 

varieties 391 

Lemon berry 40 

Lice, leaf 469 

Lime, The 391 

Lime, uses of 144 

Loganberry 417 

Loquat, The 397 

Manure, care of 145 

green 1 SO 

poultry 147 

sheep, use of '47 

Manuring at planting 103 

Manzanita berries 39 

Map of orchard and vineyard 104 

Marls 145 

Mealy bugs 477 

Measuring wire 88 

Melon shrub 4O0 

Melon tree 400 

Mildew 488 

Miner's inch 182 

Mission fruits 42 



Page 

Moisture lost by weed growth 130 

retained bv cultivation 128 

Morning Glory, killing 138 

Moss, removing 489 

Mulberry, The 415 

Mulching, after planting 104 

Mulching as substitute for cultivation 139 

Nectarine 252 

compared with peach 252 

dried 253, 456 

future of 254 

varieties 253 

Nitrogen for fruits 144, ISO 

Nursery 64, 365 

budding and grafting IZ 

classes of nursery stock 81 

growing seedlings 66 

imnorted seedlings 69 

irrigation 72 

laying out and planting 70 

pruning in 81 

selection of site for 64 

soil, preparation of 66 

soil, proper for 64 

trees, ages of 80, 81 

trees, digging 98 

trees, disinfecting 483 

trees, selecting 97 

when to plant 100 

Nuts growing in California 424 

growing from seed 68 

wild 40 

Olives 335 

at old missions 43 

budding 338 

canning 348 

climate for 335 

from cuttings ZZl 

from seed 336 

grafting 340 

localities for 336 

oil making 344, 345 

planting 341 

preferred varieties 349 

pruning 342 

pickling 335, 346 

small cuttings 337 

soils for 336 

truncheons 338 

twig borer , 478 

wild 40 

varieties 194, 348 

Orchard land, preparation of 86 

laying out in squares 87 

alternating squares 88 

equilateral triangles 91 

measure and sight 88 

measuring wire 88 

quincunx planting 91 

time for planting 100 

Orange 351 

all the year from California. .354, 378 



INDEX 



511 



Page 
Orange — continued 

budding and grafting 366 

California regions discussed 356 

conditions for citrus fruits 363 

diseases 377 

distances for 368 

from cuttings 70, 364 

from layers 364 

from seed 364 

in central California 357 

in southern California 359 

mission 42 

nursery 365 

outlook 361 

packing 380 

planting in orchard 368 

product 53, 351, 353, 355 

propagation 363 

pruning 371 

ripening first at the north 360 

seedlings, care of 365 

situation and soils for 362 

superiority of semi-tropical 354 

transplanting 368 

world's industry 351 

varieties 194, 378 

Orchard planting 94 

Oregon grape 39 

Oso berry y] 

Popular fruit varieties 191 

Palm nuts 40 

Peach 233 

age at planting 238 

approved lists of 247 

blight 489 

blooming of varieties 246 

curl-leaf 244 

diseases 243 

distance in planting 238 

dormant buds 238 

drying 455 

early bearing 234 

grafting 243 

growing season of 23 

irrigation 242 

localities for 235 

longevity of 233 

mildew 244 

mission 42 

moth ■.■477, 482 

"peach almond" 238 

pitting clings 455 

propagation 237 

pruning 116, 234, 239 

ripening of varieties 246 

root borer 478 

seedlings 66 

soils for 236 

stocks for 238 

table of varieties * 245 

thinning ]25, 241 

varieties 193, 246 



Page 

Peanut growmg 431 

Pear 255 

Bartlett, why popular 256 

blight 258, 261 

characteristics in California 256 

diseases 261 

distances for the 259 

flrying 455 

flwarf 258 

for alkali soil 258 

irrigation 260 

largest on record 255 

localities for 256 

mission 42 

on quince stock 258 

pollination 260 

propagation of 258 

pruning 259 

seedlings, growing 66, 67 

slug 468 

soils for 257 

storing and ripening 262 

tables of varieties 267 

thinning 260 

varieties 193, 264 * 

Pear, Alligator 401 

Pecan, The 432 

Persimmon, Japanese 397 

Persimmon, Virginian 397 

Persimmons, curing 398 

Phenomenal berry 417 

Phosphates 143 

Phyloxera 474 

Pioneers, planting by 46 

Pineapple 398 

Pine nuts 40 

Pistachio, The '.\ 433 

Planting, conditions favoring 100 

bar for setting 96 

cutting back after 105, 112 

depth of 103 

digging holes for 94 

laying off for 87, 88. 89 

mulching 104 

operation of 101 

preparing land for 86 

speed in 103 

time for 100 

triangular tree setter 96 

use of manure 103 

use of water 102 

Plowing, devices for 132 

orchard and vineyard 1.^3 

on hillside 1.14 

to break hardpan 87, 133 

Plow, laying off with 88 

Plums and prunes 268 

California false 37 

confusion in names 274 

definition of a prune 268 

drying 456 

from the root 271 



512 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Page 
Plums and Prunes — continued 

grafting 273 

in southern California 270 

length of season 269 

locaHties for 268 

mission 43 

myrobalan 270 

planting 271 

pollination 276 

propagation 270 

pruning the 271 

seedlings 68 

stocks and soils 270 

table of varieties 277 

varieties 193, 277 

wild 36 

Plumcot, The 274 

Pomegranate, The 43,399 

Pomelo 383 

packing 383 

varieties 194, 384 

Potash 143 

Prickly Pear 41, 400 

Prune curing 456 

Pruning 106 

bearing trees 115 

California style 109 

effects of 109 

gathering brush 124 

influenced by location 109 

low, advantages of 109 

nursery 81 

prunings as fertilizer 124, 148 

purposes of 107 

times for 119 

tools 123 

to renew old trees 122 

vase form, securing 109 

wounds, covering 124 

Quince 282 

demand for 282 

propagation 282 

pruning 283 

soils for 283 

varieties 283 

Quincunx planting 91 

Rabbit, fences 493 

Rabbits, destroying 494 

poisons for 494 

smears for 494 

Rainfall, records of 12 

Rainfall or irrigation 153, 156 

Raisin making 193, 318, 458 

Raspberry, The 416 

black-caps 417 

hybrids 417 

pruning 416 

varieties, popular 194, 417 

wild ^^ 

Red Spider 472 

Root rot 489 

Root-knots 491 



Page 

Russian introduction of fruits 45 

Salal 39 

Salmon berry 38 

Scale Insects 474 

black 476 

brown apricot 476 

cottony cushion 477 

pear 475 

orange, red 475 

orange, soft A76 

oyster shell 475 

rose and berry 475 

San Jose 475 

remedies for 484 

Sapota. white 402 

Scions, care of 76 

selection of 77 

Sea Fig 40 

Seed, growing trees from 68 

Seedlings, imported 69 

Septuple, laying off 92 

Service Berry 39 

Soils for fruits 25 

adobe 33 

alkali 34 

alluvial 31 

bed-rock or hard-pan 34 

blasting 94 

characteristics of California 26 

classification of 28 

clay 33 

defective 33 

desert 30 

examination of 35 

first aid to 143 

granitic 32 

loams 28, 29, 32 

mesa 30 

organic matter 151 

plains 29 

red 32 

river bottom 31 

sedimentary or silty 31 

shallow, blasting 94 

Sour sap 490 

Soider, red 472 

Stock, fruit as food for 503 

Squares, laying off in 87 

Squirrels, destroying 494 

Strawberry 418 

care of 421 

continuous bearing 421 

laying out for 420 

planting 421 

propagation 419 

situations and soils 419 

varieties, popular 194,421 

wild 38, 421 

Strawberry tree 400 

Summer pruning 120 

Sunburn, protection from 104, 478 

Sunlight, value of direct 20 



INDEX 



513 



Page 

Sunsliinc, evaporating 450 

Sunshine, records of 21 

Tenipcraturo, lowest 18 

Temperature, records of 18 

Thinninp frnit 125 

Thrips 470 

Tomato, tree 402 

Toyon 40 

Trees, activity and rest of 17 

hcclinR in 99 

selecting 97 

Tree-setters 95, 96 

Triangle for laying out 92 

Tuna fruit 41 

Tussock moth 468 

Varieties, chiefly planted 193 

Vine hoppers 470 

Vine-puller 61 

Vineyard — see grape 

Walnut, hlaclc 40 

Walnut. English 433 

hacteriosis or blight 443, 490 

bleaching 440 

blossoms of 440 

iHidding 435 

culture and soils 434, 439 



Page 
Walnut — continued 

gathering and drying 440 

grafting 435 

growing seedlings 68 

liybrids 435 

propagation and planting 434, 438 

Prnning 438 

soils 434 

varieties 194, 442 

wild 40 

Water measurements 182 

Weed killing by cultivation 138 

Weeds, evaporation by 128 

Weir measurement 184 

Wliitewash against sunburn 104 

Whitewash to delay bloom 501 

Wild fruits of California 36 

Windbreaks 498 

trees for 498 

Wine grapes 318 

Winery refuse as manure 148 

Winter-killing, unknown 18 

Wire, measuring 88 

Woolly aphis 473 

Wounds, covering ' 124 

Yellow jackets, killing 482 



California Vegetables 

IN 

GARDEN AND FIELD 



A MANUAL OF PRACTICE WITH AND WITHOUT IRRIGATIO^ 




By EDWARD J. 


WICKSON, A. M. 




CONTENTS 




Chapter. 




Chapter. 




I. 


Vegetable Growing in California. 


XX. 


Corn. 


II. 


Farmers' Gardens in California. 


XXI. 


Cucumber. 


III. 


California Climate as Related to 


XXII. 


Egg Plant. 




Vegetable Growing. 


XXIII. 


Lettuce. 


IV. 


Vegetable Soils_ of California. 


XXIV. 


Melons. 


V. 


Garden Irrigation. 


XXV. 


Onion Family. 


VI. 


Garden Drainage in California. 


XXVI. 


Peas. 


VII. 


Cultivation. 


XXVII. 


Peppers. 


VIII. 


Fertilization. 


XXVIII. 


Potatoes. 


IX. 


Garden Location and Arrange- 


XXIX. 


Radishes. 




ment. 


XXX. 


Rhubarb. 


X. 


The Planting Season. 


XXXI. 


Spinach. 


XI. 


Propagation. 


XXXII. 


Squashes. 


XII. 


Asparagus. 


XXXIII. 


Tomato. 


XIII. 


Artichokes. 


XXXIV. 


Turnip. 


XIV. 


Beans. 


XXXV. 


Vegetable Sundries. 


XV. 


Beet. 


XXXVI. 


Vegetables for Canning 


XVI. 


Cabbage Family. 




and Drying. 


XVII. 


Carrot, Parsnip and Salsify. 


XXXVII. 


Seed Growing in California. 


XVIII. 


Celery. 


XXXVIII. 


Garden Protection. 


XIX. 


Chicory. 


XXXIX. 


Weeds in California. 




Third Edition— Revised and Extended 



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growing in California, not only on a large scale, but to the large number who cultivate these 
products for their own consumption. — San Francisco Call. 

We take no risk in advising every Californian who has a garden spot to procure a copy. — 
San Francisco Chronicle. 

Not only interesting but valuable to every one in this State who cultivates ever so small 
a lot of ground. The author is eminently qualified for the work which he has just completed. 
— San Francisco Bulletin. 

It treats of the proper culture of all leading vegetables in California. It is full of infor- 
mation and instruction. It is so clear that whoever uses it as a guide book can not go 
astray in vegetable culture. The work is freely illustrated and handsomely bound. — Sacra- 
mento Record-Union. 

Covers every part of the State in technical analysis and physical demonstration. — Peta- 
luma Courier. 

It treats of every feature of vegetable production in plain, common-sense terms, and gives 
reasons for its assertions. — Pomona Times. 



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"One Thousand Questions in California 
Agriculture Answered" 

By E. J. WICKSON, A. M., 

This, the latest work of the author, consists of 1000 of the most 
important questions on every subject that have perplexed the farmer 
during the last few years, and which have been submitted to the editor. 
In this book, the problem appears with its solution by Prof. Wickson 
immediately following-. 

The answers to these questions are of vital importance to every 
farmer, no matter in what branch of farming he is engaged and the 
comprehensive index enables the student to find the subject which in- 
terests him without delay. 

The departments of the book consist of the most important prob- 
lems that have confronted our readers in Fruit Growing, Vegetable 
Growing, Grain and Forage Crops, Soils, Fertilizing and Irrigation, 
Live Stock and Dairy, Diseases of Animals, Feeding Farm Animals, 
Poultry-keeping and Pests and Diseases of Plants. 

A STBONG ENDOBSEMENT 

The following letter from W. S. Guilford, head farmer and agriculturist for the Kuhn 
Irrigated Land Co., himself the author of a book on potato growing, contains the kind of 
endorsements that our new book, "One Thousand Questions in California Agriculture 
Answered," is receiving. 

I am delighted with your new book. It is a most valuable addition to Cali- 
fornia's agricultural literature and should be in the hands of every farmer in the 
State. There is no way to estimate the great saving, both in money and satisfaction, 
that would be effected if every new settler in California could have this book and 
"California Fruits" and "California Vegetables" before he buys or settles on a Cali- 
fornia farm. Congratulations and best wishes. Sincerely, W. S. Guilford. 

"ONE THOUSAND QUESTIONS IN CALIFORNIA AGRI- 
CULTURE ANSWERED" 

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and should be in the hands of every California farmer. 

Contains 256 Pages. Handsomely bound in cloth. 

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